C01
Official Edo ratios differed from market rates.
supported · S05
Historical evidence retained unchanged. Effective currency identities are defined by tree-model.json, not these historical record labels.
Official Edo ratios differed from market rates.
supported · S05
The 1871 act introduced yen as the basic unit.
supported · S05
Wado Kaichin was minted in 708 using Kai Yuan Tong Bao as a model.
supported · S06
Mumon Gin-sen was used before 708.
supported · S05
Fuhon-sen minting predates Wado Kaichin.
Tokugawa money included gold, silver and copper systems.
supported · S05
Gold accounting used ryo, bu and shu.
supported · S05
Silver accounting used the weight unit monme.
supported · S05
Copper accounting used mon.
supported · S05
Tokugawa Kan'ei Tsuho minting dates to 1636.
supported · S06
Yamada Hagaki circulated locally around 1600.
supported · S05
Fukui issued hansatsu in 1661.
supported · S07
Dajokan satsu was issued in 1868.
supported · S08
Meiji Tsuho was issued in 1872.
Old-type national banknotes were issued in 1873.
supported · S08
Chieda's 1697 Tokuda specimen carries a two-fun silver value.
supported · S18
One silver monme comprised ten fun.
supported · S06
An eighteenth-century official rating equated one ryo with 60 monme or 4,000 mon.
supported · S05
The seventeenth-century museum section gives one ryo as 50 monme or 4,000 mon.
supported · S06
The 1697 specimen's inscription associates 64 monme of notes with one gold ryo.
supported · S18
Asuka-ike yielded Fuhon-sen molds and casting waste.
supported · S19
The excavation report places Asuka-ike Fuhon-sen minting before 700.
supported · S19
Asuka-ike yielded seven cut fragments of Mumon silver coins.
supported · S19
The report leaves the start and duration of Fuhon-sen minting unsettled.
supported · S19
Matsumura links Fuhon-sen to the 683 copper-coin edict as an interpretation.
supported · S20
The Agency for Cultural Affairs interprets Fuhon-sen as modeled on Kaiyuan Tongbao.
supported · S21
Kaiyuan Tongbao was first minted in 621.
MIHO’s catalogue dates a privately held Kaiyuan coin to circa 621.
supported · S22
Tokyo National Museum lists Kaiyuan coin E-7569 from Inariyama in a twelfth-century context.
supported · S23
Toyama’s July 2023 partial census identifies 376 Kaiyuan coins in the Kozenji hoard.
supported · S24
Zhao et al. report clay molds for standardized spade coins at Guanzhuang.
Zhao et al. date the development of Guanzhuang minting to approximately 640–550 BCE.
The National Museum of China dates its displayed Banliang coin to Qin, 221–206 BCE.
supported · S26
The National Museum of China reports a mass of 11.5 g for its displayed Banliang coin.
supported · S26
Kyoto National Museum catalogues Banliang entry JK380-3 under the Qin period.
supported · S27
The Bank of Korea explains half a liang as 12 zhu, approximately 7.8 g.
supported · S28
Li argues that Shang and Western Zhou cowries mainly served ornamental, funerary or ritual functions.
supported · S29
Li places the emergence of cowries as a value standard in the Middle Western Zhou period.
supported · S29
Kengen Taiho was minted in 958, ending the ancient official copper sequence.
supported · S06
The museum places rice, silk and hemp-cloth monetary use in its 11th–mid-12th-century section.
supported · S06
Western Japan used rice for large transactions in the 1570s.
supported · S06
Imported Chinese cash spread in Japan from the mid-12th into the 13th century.
supported · S06
Japanese private cash copied Chinese coin models.
supported · S06
Late-medieval erizeni differentiated coins by type and quality.
supported · S06
The NPB catalogues a Fukui five-silver-monme note at approximately 1665.
supported · S30
Dajokan notes used the existing gold-ryo unit of account.
supported · S32
The 1871 reform adopted decimal yen in place of ryo.
supported · S08
New-type national banknotes were issued in 1877.
supported · S08
Remodeled government notes began replacing the New Note in 1881.
supported · S08
The first Bank of Japan notes appeared in May 1885, denominated at ten yen.
supported · S33
Government and national-bank note circulation was invalidated at the end of 1899.
supported · S06
The 1897 gold standard defined one yen as 0.75 grams of gold.
supported · S06
Japan suspended gold convertibility in 1917.
supported · S32
Japan returned to the gold standard in January 1930.
supported · S32
Japan stopped gold conversion in December 1931.
supported · S06
The 1942 Bank of Japan law formalized managed currency.
supported · S06
The 1946 emergency measures introduced new banknotes and withdrawal restrictions.
supported · S32
Japan fixed the exchange rate at 360 yen per dollar in April 1949.
supported · S32
The December 1971 Smithsonian agreement set 308 yen per dollar.
supported · S32
Japan moved to flexible exchange rates in 1973.
supported · S32
The Kitasato 1,000-yen note was first issued on July 3, 2024.
supported · S34
The NPB catalogues an old-type twenty-yen national banknote with an 1873 issue date.
supported · S31
The illustrated twenty-yen note identifies The First National Bank on its reverse.
supported · S31
Keicho gold and silver issues began in 1601.
supported · S06
The New Note, issued in 1872, was commissioned to replace Dajokan notes.
supported · S08
The first Bank of Japan notes were silver-convertible.
supported · S08
Guanzhuang yielded 54 used or unused clay cores for spade-coin production.
supported · S35
The combined H2032 model gives 771–549 cal BCE at 95.4% probability.
supported · S35
The authors combine ceramic and radiocarbon evidence to estimate c.640–550 BCE.
supported · S35
The authors place the foundry around 780 BCE, before its minting phase.
supported · S35
Spade SP-2 came from a c.200 CE context and is interpreted as residual.
supported · S35
The authors leave the mint’s merchant or governmental affiliation unresolved.
supported · S35
Zhang et al. report over 2,000 cowries from tombs at Yaojia, Kongtougou and Zhougongmiao.
supported · S36
Zhang et al. interpret the cowries as prestige goods and ritualized symbols of hierarchy.
supported · S36
One NMC entry dates Qin Banliang first casting to 336 BCE.
supported · S40
The NMC exhibition says Banliang began no later than 306 BCE.
supported · S41
The exhibition associates Banliang monetary unification with Qin’s 221 BCE conquest.
supported · S41
Chen describes replacing four-zhu Banliang with San Zhu in 119 BCE.
supported · S37
Chen describes the change from San Zhu to Wuzhu in 118 BCE.
supported · S37
Chen dates the centralization of Wuzhu minting under the Shanglin offices to 113 BCE.
supported · S37
The NMC describes the change from Wuzhu to Kaiyuan Tongbao in Wude 4, 621 CE.
supported · S42
The NMC dates its Qi da dao stone mould to the Warring States, 475–221 BCE.
supported · S38
The NMC describes Chu bronze shell coins as modeled on polished-backed seashells.
supported · S39
The NMC identifies bronze shell coins as circulating coinage in Chu.
supported · S39
Peng and Zhu place documented Neolithic cowrie finds in a 3300–2000 BCE cultural phase.
supported · S43
Their accepted early examples include Liuwan, Shangsunjiazhai and Kanuo; several older-looking reports are rejected as insecure.
supported · S43
The NMC describes Wang Mang supplementing Wuzhu in 7 CE and banning it in 9 CE.
supported · S44
The NMC dates the Huoquan and Huobu reform to 14 CE.
supported · S44
The NMC dates its Khotan Sino-Kharosthi coin type to the first–third centuries CE.
supported · S41
He Ping distinguishes Tang feiqian remittance instruments from more widely transferable jiaozi.
supported · S45
He describes private jiaozi developing in Sichuan’s iron-cash environment, with both forms used.
supported · S45
He dates the official Yizhou jiaozi office to 1023 and issuance to 1024.
supported · S45
He describes official jiaozi taking over private issuance and retaining parts of its design.
supported · S45
The NMC places government huizi issuance at Lin’an in 1160.
supported · S46
The NMC dates Zhongtong notes to 1260.
supported · S41
The NMC dates Zhiyuan notes to 1287 and rates one guan at five Zhongtong guan.
supported · S47
The NMC describes silver settlement continuing after the Hongwu eighth-year paper issue.
supported · S48
The NMC attributes its ten-liang silver ingot to Hongwu 16, 1383.
supported · S48
The NMC’s Great Qing note is inscribed 500 wen and Xianfeng 4; it gives first issue as 1853 or 1854.
supported · S49
The NMC identifies an 1886 Qianlong-inscribed Heaton piece as an advertising machine-struck pattern.
supported · S41
The CBC preface describes replacing silver-bullion settlement with a silver-coin standard in 1933.
supported · S50
The CBC dates the move from silver to legal-tender notes to 4 November 1935.
supported · S50
The Archives essay gives the August 1948 reform as three million fabi yuan per gold yuan.
supported · S51
The CBC describes gold-yuan reform in August 1948 and silver-dollar/certificate reform in July 1949.
supported · S50
The CBC says those silver dollars and certificates did not circulate in Taiwan.
supported · S50
The first RMB series was issued on 1 December 1948.
supported · S52
Second-series RMB began on 1 March 1955 at one new yuan per 10,000 old yuan.
supported · S52
The Archives essay dates Taiwan-dollar issuance to 22 May 1946 and exchange of earlier Taiwan banknotes to September–November.
supported · S51
The Archives essay dates New Taiwan dollars to 15 June 1949 at 40,000 old dollars per new dollar.
supported · S51
The Archives essay describes geographically restricted Kinmen and Matsu overprints and ending that distinction in 1989.
supported · S51
CBC regulations effective 1 July 2000 specify New Taiwan dollars as the national currency and permit delegation of issuance-related management.
supported · S57
Hong Kong’s museum records foreign coins in 1841, local coins in 1863, and the 1935 local-unit declaration.
supported · S53
The museum describes Japanese military notes during occupation and resumption of local currency afterwards.
supported · S53
HKMA dates the Linked Exchange Rate System to 17 October 1983 and describes today’s 7.75–7.85 HKD per USD band.
supported · S54
Macao’s government history distinguishes the 1901 BNU agreement, 1905 issuing function and first notes in 1906.
supported · S55
AMCM’s 2010 review reports a fixed middle rate of 1.03 patacas per Hong Kong dollar.
supported · S56
The IMF’s June 2025 account identifies BNU and Bank of China as issuers of the same pataca currency.
supported · S58
The museum dates Sichuan’s rupee imitation to 1902 and describes circulation especially in Sichuan’s Tibetan areas.
supported · S59
NMTH attributes fabi note accession 2013.002.0020 to a 1945 1,000-yuan issue.
supported · S60
The NMC groups Tang–Qing copper, iron and lead coinage under the treasure-inscription tradition.
supported · S41
Shanghai Museum documents Spanish and Mexican silver dollars in coastal China and late Qing/early Republican silver-dollar reform.
supported · S61
The NMC dates the Ming paper issue to Hongwu 8, corresponding to 1375.
supported · S48
Shanghai Museum describes silver’s monetary role growing from the mid-Tang through Song and Yuan, with widespread late-Ming use.
supported · S61
Berlin’s catalogue dates the Florentine gold-florin prototype to 1252.
supported · S63
Berlin catalogues a Hall Guldiner dated 1486, describing silver coinage valued like gold gulden.
supported · S62
Berlin gives 1519 for Joachimsthal Guldengroschen; the CNB brochure gives 1520 and links Joachimsthaler, thaler and American dollar names.
MAN places Iberian real coinage in the early fourteenth-century expansion of larger silver denominations.
supported · S65
MAN identifies the eight-reales piece as a major sixteenth-century onward international silver coin, also called peso or duro.
supported · S66
Banxico dates Mexico’s mint charter to 1535 and its first coins apparently to April 1536, initially in smaller real denominations.
supported · S67
Banxico dates pillar designs to 1732–1772 and the portrait design’s introduction to 1772.
supported · S67
Banxico says the 1823 Republic retained reales and escudos while changing coin designs.
supported · S67
Banxico describes decimal coinage in 1869–1905, with interruptions, and a gold-standard reform in 1905.
supported · S67
Mexico introduced one new peso for 1,000 old pesos on 1 January 1993; dropping “new” in 1996 did not repeat the conversion.
supported · S68
Rijksmuseum’s lion dollar is a Dordrecht specimen dated 1589; its description connects daalder/dollar to Joachimsthal.
supported · S69
The 1792 Act defines the dollar by the current Spanish milled dollar and specifies 371¼ grains fine silver, 416 grains gross.
supported · S70
The 1792 Act sets the relative value of pure silver to pure gold at fifteen to one and establishes decimal public accounting.
supported · S70
The U.S. Mint dates the first U.S. silver-dollar coinage to 1794.
supported · S71
The San Francisco Fed dates Continental paper issuance to 1775.
supported · S72
The Smithsonian’s 1778 fifty-dollar Continental bill promises Spanish milled dollars or equivalent gold or silver value.
supported · S73
The 1790 Funding Act accepts Continental bills at 100 paper dollars per specie dollar of subscribed principal, paid through funded-debt certificates.
supported · S74
The 1834 Act reduces the gold eagle to 232 grains fine gold; the 1837 Act specifies 258 grains at .900 fineness.
supported · S75
The 1837 Act gives the silver dollar a gross weight of 412½ grains at .900 fineness, retaining 371¼ fine grains.
supported · S75
The 1857 Act ends the legal-tender status of foreign gold and silver coins under prior acts.
supported · S75
The 1862 Legal Tender Act authorizes U.S. notes, with exceptions including import duties and interest on public debt.
supported · S76
The 1863–1864 National Banking Acts establish national bank charters and bond-backed notes; a later tax discourages state-bank notes.
supported · S77
The 1873 Act specifies a 420-grain trade dollar at .900 fineness and initially limits its legal-tender use to five dollars per payment.
supported · S75
The 22 July 1876 law removes the trade dollar’s legal-tender status.
supported · S75
The 1878 Act restores coinage of the 412½-grain standard silver dollar and authorizes certificates against deposited coins.
supported · S75
The 1900 Act defines the gold dollar as 25.8 grains at .900 fineness.
supported · S75
Federal Reserve History dates Federal Reserve notes to 1914 and describes their coexistence with other dollar-note families.
supported · S78
Federal Reserve History distinguishes the 1933 suspension of gold arrangements from the 1934 restructuring and revaluation.
supported · S79
The Bretton Woods account distinguishes the $35 official gold link, its 1971 suspension for foreign official holders, and generalized floating in 1973.
supported · S80
Powell describes Halifax’s 1758 legal rating of a Spanish dollar at five local shillings, equivalent to four dollars per account pound.
supported · S11
Canada required dollar accounts from 31 December 1857 and issued decimal coins in 1858.
supported · S11
Powell dates Nova Scotia’s decimal transition to 1860 and the 1871 alignment at 75 Nova Scotia cents for 73 Canadian cents.
supported · S11
Newfoundland’s 1863 decimal law took effect in 1865; its currency was aligned with Canada in 1895.
supported · S11
Powell dates Canada’s return to a floating dollar to June 1970.
supported · S11
HKMA distinguishes coins dated 1863 from their 1864 arrival and notes the mint’s closure in 1868.
supported · S85
Royal Mint Museum distinguishes .900 issued British trade dollars from its illustrated .925 pattern.
supported · S81
NLB describes Spanish/Mexican dollar use and the 1874 acceptance of Japanese yen and U.S. trade dollars in the Straits.
supported · S82
NLB dates British trade dollars to 1895, Straits notes to 1899, and local Straits dollar coins to 1903.
supported · S82
The 1906 Commons reply records the Straits dollar fixed at two shillings and fourpence sterling.
supported · S83
NLB dates the Malayan board to 1938 and legal issue of its new coins to 24 January 1940.
supported · S82
NLB distinguishes the 1952 Malaya–British Borneo board from its 1953 coinage.
supported · S82
NLB describes occupation notes in 1942–1945 while prewar notes retained legal status.
supported · S82
NLB identifies the 1967 end of shared issuance and separate Singapore, Malaysian and Brunei currencies.
supported · S82
BNM dates Malaysia’s new dollar to 12 June 1967 and describes old-currency redemption at two shillings and fourpence sterling.
supported · S88
MAS describes Singapore–Brunei interchangeability at par; BDCB distinguishes customary tender from legal tender.
BNM records Malaysia’s 1973 withdrawal from interchangeability and floating from 21 June 1973.
supported · S88
BSP describes imported colonial silver coins and Spanish-period pesos fuertes banknotes issued by Banco Español Filipino.
supported · S84
BSP dates the U.S.-approved Philippine coinage reform to 1903 with two Philippine pesos per U.S. dollar.
supported · S84
BSP describes Japanese occupation notes and local resistance issues during 1942–1945, followed by postwar and central-bank issues.
supported · S84
NMC identifies the Guangdong 1889 silver trial as seven mace and three candareens.
supported · S86
The institutional Tianjin-mint history dates Yuan Shikai one-yuan production to December 1914 after the 1910 currency regulations.
supported · S87
Shanghai Museum documents Spanish and Mexican silver-dollar use in coastal China and later domestic silver-dollar reforms.
supported · S61
RBA describes early Spanish-dollar circulation in Australia, later sterling institutions, and national paper money.
supported · S93
RBA’s 1966 report values the new Australian dollar at ten old shillings, or two dollars per pound.
supported · S91
RBA records public issue of Australian dollar notes on 14 February 1966 and subsequent retirement of pound notes.
supported · S92
RBNZ dates decimal changeover to 10 July 1967 at two New Zealand dollars per pound.
supported · S94
RBF dates Fiji’s dollar changeover to 13 January 1969 and describes gradual withdrawal of pound currency.
supported · S95
CBSI dates Solomon Islands dollar introduction to October 1977, replacing Australian currency in the changeover.
supported · S96
ECCB’s report dates ECCA’s succession to BCCB and its first notes to 1965; ECCB was established in 1983 and issued notes in 1984.
supported · S97
ECCB records EC$4.80 per pound before the July 1976 switch to EC$2.70 per U.S. dollar.
supported · S97
Bundesbank dates Trinidad and Tobago’s 1:1 dollar changeover to 14 December 1964.
supported · S98
BOJ dates Jamaica’s decimal currency to 8 September 1969 on a ten-shilling dollar basis.
supported · S99
Bank of Guyana dates national notes replacing BCCB notes to 15 November 1965 and national coins to mid-1967.
supported · S100
Barbados’s central bank describes BCCB/ECCA predecessors and national banknotes from 1973.
supported · S101
Barbados fixed two local dollars per U.S. dollar on 5 July 1975.
supported · S102
Bundesbank records 25 May 1966: seven Bahamas shillings per Bahamian dollar.
supported · S98
Bundesbank records 6 February 1970: 2.40 Bermudian dollars per Bermuda pound.
supported · S98
BMA dates the Bermudian dollar’s U.S.-dollar parity to 31 July 1972.
supported · S103
Belize’s central bank dates local government dollar notes and a gold-basis reform to 1894.
supported · S104
Suriname’s 1 January 2004 reform exchanged 1,000 guilders for one dollar, except coins and muntbiljetten retaining nominal values.
supported · S105
Bank of Namibia dates the national dollar’s introduction to 15 September 1993.
supported · S106
Bundesbank records NAD–rand parity and continuing rand legal tender in Namibia.
supported · S98
The CBL working paper describes nineteenth-century local/U.S. coin coexistence, a 1913–1942 West African pound phase, and official USD adoption in 1943.
supported · S107
The paper describes competing wartime Liberian note zones and gives 1999 unification; CBL’s press release instead dates new unified notes to 2000.
The IMF describes Zimbabwe’s local-currency collapse in late 2008 and official multicurrency arrangements in early 2009, including a rand reference.
supported · S109
RBZ’s 2024 report dates Zimbabwe Gold’s introduction to 5 April 2024.
supported · S110
BCE records Ecuador’s January 2000 dollarization announcement at 25,000 sucres per USD and the March legal reform.
supported · S111
Bundesbank dates U.S.-dollar legal tender in El Salvador to 1 January 2001.
supported · S98
Bundesbank lists USD legal tender alongside Panama’s balboa context.
supported · S98
Chicago dates the first assignat authorization to December 1789, linking livre-denominated claims to sales of state lands.
supported · S12
Chicago distinguishes April 1790 legal-tender and interest changes from September 1790 abolition of interest.
supported · S12
Chicago inventories 100- and 1,000-franc assignats dated 18 Nivôse III, January 1795.
supported · S12
The Dewamin inventory attributes the 1796 mandat exchange to 28 Ventôse IV, at thirty assignat units per mandat unit.
supported · S13
Chicago distinguishes mandats’ fixed-price land entitlement from assignat-funded land auctions.
supported · S12
Chicago lists a 25-franc promesse de mandat dated 28 Ventôse IV, 18 March 1796.
supported · S12
Chicago lists undated La Rochelle twelve-sous and Mainz ten-sous notes.
supported · S12
Dewamin catalogues a fabrication-equipment destruction record dated 30 Pluviôse IV, 19 February 1796.
supported · S13
Dewamin records a 1797 depreciation table and the 23 June 1797 private-transactions law.
supported · S13
The law of 18 Germinal III names the monetary unit franc instead of livre and calls its hundredths centimes.
supported · S125
Delage quotes the 15 August 1795 law defining a five-gram franc at nine-tenths silver.
supported · S114
Delage dates decimal subdivision of the monetary livre to 24 August 1793.
supported · S114
Bindseil dates the Caisse d’Escompte charter to 24 March 1776 and describes its livre-tournois banknotes.
supported · S112
Bindseil distinguishes the Caisse’s 1783 suspension, limited convertibility after 1788, and August 1793 closure.
supported · S112
The translated 1716 charter permits bank-écu notes at charter-date weight and fineness, payable on sight.
supported · S112
Orain separates Law’s 1716 bank, 1719 public-debt conversion into company shares, and the 1720 collapse.
supported · S113
Monnaie de Paris catalogues a Paris gold louis dated 1640.
supported · S116
Monnaie de Paris dates Henri III’s silver franc to 1575, valued at one livre tournois.
supported · S115
Monnaie de Paris connects its gold franc à cheval to the ordinance of 5 December 1360.
supported · S117
The Monnaie de Paris gros catalogue gives a 1266–1270 context and a value of twelve deniers tournois.
supported · S118
Monnaie de Paris describes tournois, parisis and angevin deniers circulating together around 1204.
supported · S115
Dieudonné traces Capetian deniers to Carolingian predecessors while stressing local differences and uncertain early weight and fineness.
supported · S119
Monnaie de Paris describes Carolingian accounting as one pound, twenty sous, or 240 deniers.
supported · S115
Berlin describes the Carolingian silver denier, a twelve-denier account solidus, and the 793/794 reform.
supported · S120
Berlin dates its Treviso Charlemagne denier to 793/794–813.
supported · S120
The Warsaw research glossary places the Merovingian shift from gold tremisses to silver deniers around 670.
supported · S122
Berlin catalogues a pseudoimperial Merovingian tremissis, circa 540–580, within Roman-imitative coinage.
supported · S121
The Warsaw glossary identifies the later-fourth-century tremissis as a third of a solidus.
supported · S122
The Warsaw glossary places Constantine’s solidus reform in the early fourth century, superseding the aureus with uneven initial adoption.
supported · S123
Marseille’s municipal account dates local coin production to the late sixth century BCE.
supported · S124
Theureau links the Saint-Martin/Tours denier type with its later use as a money of account.
supported · S126
Theureau describes Philippe Auguste taking control of Saint-Martin’s monetary right; its earliest known confirmation is dated 919.
supported · S126
Lafaurie describes Philippe Auguste’s adoption of the tournois after the 1204 conquests, valued at four-fifths of a parisis.
supported · S127
Lafaurie describes early royal coinage as local and notes Carolingian monograms persisting on some later deniers.
supported · S127
Berlin catalogues a Rome aureus of Caesar and Hirtius dated 46 BCE.
supported · S128
Kroll reports electrum coins in late-seventh-century BCE contexts at Ephesus.
supported · S129
Kroll describes Croesus replacing electrum with separate gold and silver coinage, supported by finds predating Sardis’s Persian destruction.
supported · S129
Kroll records continued lion-and-bull coinage under Persian rule after Croesus.
supported · S129
Kroll dates replacement by Persian royal-image gold and silver types to around 515 BCE.
supported · S129
Kroll describes an Old Smyrna hoard combining Lydian, Persian and local Greek silver around 500 BCE.
supported · S129
The Sardis account documents sixth-century BCE refining installations, while Cahill’s addendum questions a Pactolus source for coin electrum.
supported · S130
The British Museum’s electrum note cautions that the earliest issuing authorities cannot be identified with certainty.
supported · S131
Cahill and colleagues (2025) argue that nine worn Croeseids from a destruction context support an earlier reform, perhaps in the 570s BCE.
supported · S132
Decimalisation on 15 February 1971 retained the pound and changed its subdivision from 240 old pence to 100 new pence.
supported · S133
The pre-decimal pound comprised 20 shillings, each of 12 pence.
supported · S140
Britain suspended the gold standard in September 1931.
supported · S134
The 1925 Act provided bullion purchases at £3 17s 10½d per standard troy ounce, in bars of approximately 400 fine ounces.
supported · S135
The Bank’s obligation to exchange notes for gold was suspended during the Restriction Period, 1797–1821.
supported · S134
The Bank began partially printed denominated notes in 1725; earlier notes were handwritten for deposited amounts.
supported · S134
The Bank of England was founded in 1694 and opened for business on 1 August.
supported · S134
London goldsmith-bankers issued notes before the Bank of England’s foundation, including lending against specie deposits.
supported · S147
In 1817 the twenty-shilling sovereign took the place of the twenty-one-shilling guinea in regular gold production.
supported · S136
Newton’s September 1717 report preceded the reduction of the guinea’s rating to 21 shillings.
supported · S137
The guinea was introduced in 1663 at 20 shillings.
supported · S138
The Royal Mint undertook a major recoinage of old silver during Newton’s first years as Warden from 1696.
supported · S137
The 1489 sovereign first represented the established pound of account in a single coin.
supported · S139
Fine sovereigns were revalued in 1526; by 1551–53 fine and crown-gold sovereigns had different ratings.
supported · S139
The Royal Mint Museum traces pound–solidus–denarius reckoning to Francia, with early English transmission dated only tentatively.
supported · S140
The Museum links more consistent penny weight under William I to the development of sterling reckoning.
supported · S140
The English silver penny continued through the Norman Conquest and was struck for circulation into the mid-seventeenth century.
supported · S141
Fox interprets the 1707 union as harmonisation of coinage standards, without creation of a new account unit.
supported · S142
Twelve pounds Scots equalled one pound sterling in accounting; Fox distinguishes this from rates for actual circulating coins.
supported · S142
Scots pounds continued in prices and accounts for decades after the 1707 union.
supported · S142
Fitzwilliam CM.143-1985 is an Offa heavy penny dated circa 792–796 from an East Anglian mint.
supported · S143
Fitzwilliam CM.2259-1997 is a gold shilling attributed to Eadbald and London, dated 616–640.
supported · S144
Naismith identifies Merovingian tremisses as models for most early English gold shillings.
supported · S145
Naismith places increased Frankish gold imports at the start of renewed large-scale English currency, from around 580.
supported · S145
Late debased gold types transitioned into early silver pennies, with overlap and imprecise dating.
supported · S145
The coins conventionally called sceattas were already pennies; later broad pennies continued that denomination.
supported · S145
Naismith cautions that Roman coins in Anglo-Saxon contexts often represent rediscovery and reuse.
supported · S145
Kershaw and colleagues infer recycled Byzantine silver as the main bullion source for sampled early North Sea coinages.
supported · S146
Their study finds increasing Melle-like silver after about 750, including English and Frankish coins.
supported · S146
Alfred’s London Monogram penny explicitly names London; the Museum notes that minting there predates his resettlement.
supported · S148
Naismith dates Edgar’s major currency reorganisation to the early 970s.
supported · S149
Naismith identifies revival of earlier English coin designs under Edgar, including Alfred’s London Monogram on halfpennies.
supported · S149
Henry II introduced a new coin standard and type in 1158.
supported · S150
The short-cross penny was introduced in the 1180 reform.
supported · S150
Short-cross pennies kept the name Henricus through Richard I and John.
supported · S150
Henry III’s long-cross penny replaced the short-cross design.
supported · S150
Edward I’s 1279 reform exchanged older underweight pennies for new coins of prescribed weight and fineness, with a mint charge.
supported · S150
The 1279 reform supplied struck halfpennies and quarter-penny farthings as alternatives to cutting pennies.
supported · S150
David I retained Carlisle and its existing mint in the 1136 settlement; coin types were subsequently issued there under Scottish control.
supported · S151
The Carlisle study identifies Scottish-controlled issues copying Henry I type 15 and Stephen type 1.
supported · S151
The study leaves the ordering of some early Carlisle types and attribution of Henric coins uncertain.
supported · S151
Before union, Scottish accounting used pounds of 20 shillings of 12 pence, alongside a merk worth two-thirds of a pound.
supported · S142
Fox describes Scottish proclamations rating foreign coins in 1677 and uprating them in 1695.
supported · S142
Kelly dates completion of the assimilation of the earlier Irish currency into that of the UK to 1826.
supported · S153
The 1825 Commons debate described £100 British as equivalent to £108 6s 8d Irish and proposed discharging Irish debts at twelve-thirteenths in British currency.
supported · S152
The debate described Irish circulation as a mixture of banknotes, bills, British coins, tokens and Irish copper.
supported · S152
Blackburn places the inauguration of Dublin’s coinage at circa 995.
supported · S154
The National Museum of Ireland dates Sihtric III’s first locally struck Dublin silver pennies to around 997 or 998.
supported · S155
Blackburn identifies sequential copying of contemporary Anglo-Saxon types in Dublin Phase I.
supported · S154
The Museum describes Anglo-Saxon, Carolingian and Islamic coins circulating in tenth-century Ireland before local minting.
supported · S155
The Museum describes coin production outside Dublin under Prince John and distinctive triangular devices on thirteenth-century Irish coins.
supported · S155
The Museum reports virtually no local minting during 1310–1460, alongside continued use of mixed Irish, English, Scottish and other coins.
supported · S155
New Brunswick permitted decimal accounts in 1852 and required them from 1 November 1860; its dollar standard matched Canada’s.
supported · S156
Prince Edward Island used a £150-local-to-£100-sterling reporting par in 1848; sterling rents had a separate rule.
supported · S156
Prince Edward Island changed to decimal accounts during December 1871–February 1872, with its dollar equal to Canada’s.
supported · S156
Practical PEI assimilation in 1873 preceded legal integration in 1881.
supported · S156
Vancouver Island’s 1862 act specifies dollar public accounts from 1 January 1863 and $4.85 per pound sterling.
supported · S157
British Columbia’s 1865 ordinance specifies dollar public accounts from 1 January 1866 and $4.85 per pound sterling, subject to its approval-proclamation clause.
supported · S158
The 1867 ordinance establishes uniform dollar accounts across British Columbia, with an ordinary sovereign rating of $4.85 and a separate Crown-revenue schedule using $5 per pound.
supported · S159
The 1906 consolidation requires equivalent Canadian-currency payment of earlier BC and PEI debts payable after the 1 July 1881 boundary.
supported · S160
Section 6 applies the 75-Nova-Scotia-cent to 73-Canadian-cent conversion to covered payments from 1 July 1871, rounding fractional Canadian cents to the nearest whole cent.
supported · S160
Newfoundland aligned its dollar with Canada’s in 1895; parity is not proof that its local coinage ended.
supported · S156
Newfoundland’s last coins were minted in 1947; Canadian notes and coins circulated at par before its 1949 entry into Canada.
supported · S161
McCullough reports that Nova Scotia’s 1758 five-shilling dollar act was disallowed; the Halifax rating persisted by custom.
supported · S156
Canada’s 1853 act, proclaimed 1 August 1854, recognized both pound and dollar accounts; mandatory decimal accounts and coinage followed separately.
supported · S11
Ross and Bettenay place widespread silver accounting around 2600 BCE, with possibly earlier antecedents.
supported · S166
Their footnote 3 locates barley and copper monetary contexts in Early Dynastic IIIa, approximately 2600–2450 BCE.
supported · S166
Weighed metal continued in the Persian Empire after coinage spread; coin adoption did not universally replace bullion payments.
supported · S166
CDLI classifies BM 102124 as an Ur III silver-loan tablet, approximately 2100–2000 BCE; no provenience is supplied.
supported · S167
Met tablet 66.245.17a records six minas of silver owed to Ashur-idi, with staged repayment and interest for delay.
supported · S168
Met case 66.245.18b records discharge of a copper loan; its text repeated the enclosed tablet to protect the record.
supported · S169
The ANS places Italian use of cast bronze ingots as money in the sixth century BCE.
supported · S162
ANS specimen 1957.172.2 is a Roman silver didrachm dated 270–260 BCE.
supported · S162
ANS specimen 1987.79.1 is a silver quadrigatus dated approximately 225 BCE.
supported · S162
Bonn places introduction of the denarius system around 212/211 BCE; MAN uses approximately 211 BCE.
The early denarius was rated at ten asses; quinarius and silver sestertius at five and two-and-a-half asses.
supported · S164
The ANS dates the denarius rerating from ten to sixteen asses to around 140 BCE.
supported · S163
The ANS gives the late-Republic/early-imperial denomination relationship of one aureus to twenty-five denarii.
supported · S163
Caracalla’s antoninianus was valued at two denarii while weighing roughly one-and-a-half times as much.
supported · S163
The ANS distinguishes the denarius accounting unit used in the 301 reform from a circulating denarius coin.
supported · S163
MAN describes Alfonso VIII’s gold maravedí as adopting the Almoravid coin’s weight and appearance, with Christian Arabic legends.
supported · S170
MAN’s displayed Alfonso VIII gold maravedí is attributed to Toledo, Safar Era 1237 / 1199 CE.
supported · S170
Rivero Hernández distinguishes the later Castilian maravedí unit of account from earlier physical coinage.
supported · S171
The 1497 reform summary rates a real at 34 maravedís, a ducado at 375, and a blanca at one-half.
supported · S171
Rivero Hernández argues that early New Spain gold pesos cannot be assigned one fixed maravedí value without their mass, purity and context.
supported · S171
MAN places Carolingian silver-denier production in present-day Catalonia after 785.
supported · S172
MAN describes later-eleventh-century Christian Iberian kingdoms as issuing separate dinero systems with differing values and types.
supported · S172
The Met dates Abd al-Malik’s non-figural gold reform to 696–697 CE.
supported · S175
Met dinar 99.35.2386 is dated 79 AH / 698–699 CE and attributed to Syria.
supported · S175
Berlin distinguishes the gold reform in 77 AH from the silver reform in 78/79 AH.
supported · S177
Berlin describes Arab-Sasanian drachms as continuing Sasanian designs with additional Arabic inscriptions.
supported · S177
Berlin describes the dinar replacing the solidus and the dirham replacing the Sasanian drachm in the reform context.
supported · S177
Met dirham 04.35.3343 was struck at Wasit in 93 AH / 711–712 CE.
supported · S176
The Nishapur study distinguishes excavated coins from several examples purchased locally from Hajji Lutfallah.
supported · S178
The Nishapur study uses dinar for gold, dirham for silver, and fals for copper; these are different monetary components.
supported · S178
MAN dates the earliest conquest-period Andalusian dinars, initially inscribed in Latin, from 712.
supported · S173
MAN’s bilingual Andalusian dinar is dated 98 AH / 716–717 CE.
supported · S173
MAN describes Nasrid gold as following the Almohad system introduced in the twelfth century.
supported · S174
MAN attributes the oldest known Castilian doblas to Alfonso X, whose reign was 1252–1284.
supported · S183
MAN identifies an Islamic weight-standard influence on Castilian gold doblas despite different imagery.
supported · S183
The BOJ Museum traces Koshu gold’s ryo–bu–shu reckoning into Edo-period gold accounting.
supported · S06
The BOJ Museum describes medieval one-coin/one-mon usage breaking down as coins were selected by type and quality.
supported · S06
The BOJ Museum dates gold-unit-denominated Meiwa Nishu silver coins to 1772, distinguishing denomination from metal.
supported · S06
Honda’s abstract describes locally differing acceptance of standard coins, private Japanese issues and some Ming coins.
supported · S181
Honda distinguishes monetary aims from fiscal aims in anti-shroffing decrees; an order alone does not establish actual uniform acceptance.
supported_inference · S181
Kamiki’s abstract notes Korean and Annamese coins among Japan’s medieval imported coin supply.
supported · S182
Kamiki contrasts the official gold/copper rating with actual transactions; the abstract alone is insufficient to define a universal market rate.
supported_inference · S182
Pollard and Liu analyze 1,803 coin-composition records, with strongly uneven coverage across dynasties.
supported · S179
Their analysis identifies a change in alloying practice around Qin unification, rather than proving monetary conversion terms.
supported_inference · S179
The study’s historical overview records Wuzhu production under multiple post-Han states and the Sui.
supported · S179
The authors explicitly warn that their chemical survey is not a numismatic classification and that trace-element comparisons need caution.
supported · S179
Abramson discusses possible English silver pennies in the 660s and earlier gold issues, explicitly treating his proposals as tentative.
supported · S180
Abramson describes large-scale Northumbrian copper-alloy styca production continuing until York’s conquest in 866/867.
supported · S180
Abramson distinguishes southern broad-penny development from the persistence of early pennies and later broad pennies in Northumbria.
supported · S180
MAN relates the name dinero to Roman denarius; this establishes a naming connection, not an unbroken conversion chain.
supported_inference · S165
MAN describes Almoravid gold supplying Castile during the first half of the twelfth century.
supported · S170
Rivero Hernández’s 1497 summary distinguishes the disappearance of older gold types from continuation of the real and blanca.
supported · S171
MAN’s Boabdil gold dobla is dated within 1482–1492; that specimen range does not establish the last circulation date.
supported_inference · S174
Berlin specimen 18205131 is dated 78 AH / 697–698 CE; its Damascus mint attribution is explicitly uncertain.
supported · S177
The ANS catalogues denarius specimen 1944.100.164 to 209–208 BCE, with an X value mark.
supported · S162
Pre-coin silver-account and loan evidence does not by itself demonstrate a genealogical conversion into Lydian electrum.
Shared dinero/denier terminology does not make distinct Iberian kingdoms’ currencies identical.
supported_inference · S172
Gold and silver reform stages must not be collapsed into one exact universal 697 changeover.
supported_inference · S177
Nishapur coin mint names identify production places; an excavated or acquired find location does not establish a direct trade route.
supported_inference · S178
Imported-cash use in Japan and local private imitation require separate relationships from domestic state issuance.
supported_inference · S181
Pollard and Liu propose that most sampled pre-Qin coin classes fit mixing between a tin-bearing bronze and a copper-lead alloy.
supported · S184
Wei arched-foot spades behave differently in their chemical analysis; the proposed production model is not universal.
supported · S184
The combined H2032 sublayers 1–4 result has three 95.4% intervals: 771–741 BCE (18.4%), 688–663 (16.6%), and 646–549 (60.4%).
supported · S185
Table S2 identifies millet from H2032-1, -2 and -3, but charcoal from H2032-4; the combined result is not exclusively short-lived seed evidence.
supported · S185
Table S1 lists 54 clay cores, with paired dimensions for 17; its reported width/thickness coefficients of variation are 2.13% and 2.54%.
supported_inference · S185
The supplement identifies OxCal 4.3 and IntCal13 and supplies a combined-result figure, but no executable model code.
supported · S185
The c.640–550 BCE minting interpretation combines archaeological context with dating; it is not the entire 95.4% combined radiocarbon interval.
The 1852 act retains the local pound of twenty shillings while permitting amounts and accounts in dollars and decimal parts.
supported · S186
The printed commencement note records royal approval on 30 June 1852, provincial declaration on 11 August, and operation from 1 October, following Gazette publication on 15 September.
supported · S186
The 1852 act rates a lawful British sovereign at one local pound, four shillings and four pence.
supported · S186
The 1860 act requires accounts rendered to government in dollars and cents, allowing a parallel pounds–shillings–pence column.
supported · S187
Section 4 equates four dollars with one existing local pound, twenty cents with one shilling, and divides dollars into 100 cents and cents into ten mills.
supported · S187
Section 3 makes qualifying post-1-July-1834 US eagles weighing ten pennyweights eighteen grains tender for ten dollars, with proportional multiples and divisions.
supported · S187
Sections 5–6 limit the specified royal-authorized silver coins to ten dollars per payment and copper/bronze coins to twenty cents.
supported · S187
The 1860 act was passed on 9 April and specifies commencement on 1 November 1860.
On 16 December 1861 the Royal Mint reported the copper coinage complete; New Brunswick silver remained to follow, with March delivery expected.
supported · S188
New Brunswick’s council reported on 10 November 1860 that its decimal-account act was operating, but Canadian coins were not legal tender locally.
supported · S188
The original 1852 act is 15 Victoria, chapter 85; UNB’s 14-Victoria metadata label conflicts with the printed heading and the 1860 cross-reference.
Section 2 permits the Governor in Council to prescribe fractional-cent equivalents by published order; it supplies no universal nearest-cent rounding rule.
supported_inference · S187
Section 8 keeps the 1852 act in force subject to the 1860 provisions, supporting an accounting reform rather than wholesale legal cancellation.
supported_inference · S187
Krus and Schuler distinguish WACB establishment on 6 December 1912 from first currency issue on 26 June 1913.
supported · S189
Large-scale WACB banknote issue began on 11 July 1916; the compilation also reports a small £9 balance at June-end.
supported · S189
The WACB pound exchanged at sterling parity, with commissions; parity did not imply costless remittance.
supported · S189
The original WACB area comprised Gambia, Gold Coast, Nigeria and Sierra Leone.
supported · S189
Krus and Schuler report final Gambian WACB note tender ending 1 September 1966 and coin tender ending 1 June 1968.
supported · S189
The WACB remained in liquidation until 31 October 1973, after its monetary role ended.
supported · S189
Gambian national notes began on 5 October 1964; the central bank took over on 1 March 1971.
supported · S189
British silver already circulated locally before the WACB; the proposed sterling ancestry is scoped to that monetary replacement context.
supported_inference · S189
Bank of Ghana first issued national pounds, shillings and pence on 14 July 1958, taking over from WACB.
supported · S190
On 19 July 1965 the cedi replaced Ghanaian pounds; one cedi equalled 8s4d, hence 12/5 cedis per pound.
supported_inference · S190
On 17 February 1967 one new cedi replaced 1.20 of the 1965 cedis.
supported · S190
In March 1973 the new cedi became known simply as the cedi.
supported · S190
The Bank records a 9 March 1979 discounted note exchange, with different discounts around a 5,000-cedi threshold.
supported · S190
Cedi recalls cowrie money and pesewa a gold-dust denomination; naming alone does not establish a currency conversion.
supported · S190
Nigeria issued its national notes and coins on 1 July 1959 while withdrawing WACB issues.
supported · S191
WACB legal-tender status in Nigeria ended on 1 July 1962, later than national issue.
supported · S191
Nigeria redesigned notes in 1965 and again during the civil war in 1968; these are recorded as issue changes.
supported_inference · S191
Decimal notes and coins began on 1 January 1973; one naira equalled ten old shillings, or two naira per pound.
supported · S192
The Bank of Sierra Leone equates 240 old pence with two leones; its separate divide-the-pound-by-1.2 wording is inconsistent.
supported_inference · S193
The modern leone rescaling divides nominal amounts by 1,000.
supported · S193
The UN reports Sierra Leone introduced the leone on 4 August 1964, equal to ten shillings and subdivided into 100 cents.
supported · S194
The first central-bank statement, dated 31 August 1964, still held WACB notes and coins among its assets.
supported · S194
Indexed CBG text dates the currency ordinance’s operation to 1 October 1964 and the national notes four days later.
supported · S195
Indexed CBG text gives 21 November 1966 for national coin introduction, conflicting with the 1965 date repeated by Krus–Schuler.
The 2007 reform set 10,000 preceding cedis equal to one Ghana cedi, divided into 100 Ghana pesewas.
supported · S196
The Bank’s annual report dates new Ghana-cedi cash circulation to 3 July 2007.
supported · S196
The transition ran through December 2007; old cash was to lose legal-tender status by 1 January 2008, with exchange continuing.
supported · S196
Existing cedi contracts, balances, securities and payment instruments were to convert automatically to equivalent Ghana-cedi amounts.
supported · S196
The annual report records redenomination gazetting on 23 March 2007, separately from the later cash launch.
supported · S196
BSL’s newsletter reports new leone circulation on 1 July 2022 at one new unit for 1,000 old.
supported · S197
A US Treasury notice records Gambian decimalisation effective 1 July 1971, with five dalasis replacing one pound.
supported · S198
The IMF reports old-leone legal tender ended in December 2023; old notes remained exchangeable at BSL in its 2024 account.
supported · S199
The cedi rescalings are modeled as dated unit epochs within one continuity, preserving conversion arithmetic without extra currency branches.
The 2022 leone rescaling remains a same-line event; the old-note withdrawal does not terminate the leone continuity.
The WACB chronology separates institutional formation, coin issue, note issue, territorial withdrawal and final liquidation.
supported_inference · S189
The CBN’s 1912 start for WACB notes conflicts with the archival compilation’s separation of establishment and 1916 large-scale note issue.
Currency Act 1965 s.2 makes its remaining provisions operative on 14 February 1966.
supported · S200
Section 8 sets two Australian dollars per pound, ten cents per shilling and five-sixths of a cent per penny.
supported · S200
Sections 9–11 convert covered legal references, contracts and payments, with foreign-currency and rounding qualifications.
supported · S200
The federal Act excludes Papua, New Guinea and Christmas Island from its territorial extension.
supported · S200
Sections 18–21 allow transitional old-currency dealings and old/new coin tender; s.23 permits later coin call-ins. Decimal launch is not a universal old-cash extinction date.
supported_inference · S200
Bermuda Act s.9 converts covered sterling references and transactions from 6 February 1970.
supported · S201
Bermuda conversion rounding discards fractions below half a cent and rounds half a cent or more upwards.
supported · S201
BMA records a dollar launch on 6 February 1970 at eight shillings and fourpence: 12/5 dollars per former pound.
supported_inference · S202
BMA reports that all old Bermuda currency had been demonetised by 30 June 1970 after gradual withdrawal.
supported · S202
BMA separately dates the formal US-dollar link to 31 July 1972; this is not the 1970 predecessor conversion.
supported_inference · S202
S.B.2003 no.88 changes the statutory unit to the Surinamese dollar, SRD, divided into 100 cents, from 1 January 2004.
supported · S204
S.B.2003 no.89 converts covered guilder amounts to dollars at 1,000 guilders per dollar from 1 January 2004 while preserving other contractual terms.
supported · S203
Article 5 excepts qualifying government coins and one-/two-and-a-half-guilder government notes: their corresponding cent/dollar face values are retained; commemorative coins are excluded.
supported · S203
Article 6 prescribes cent rounding and special aggregation of banknotes ending in five; the aggregation rule does not govern individual-note exchange.
supported · S203
Old central-bank notes continue as tender until the recall period ends, valued at one-thousandth of their guilder face values.
supported · S203
The law qualifies its application to rights and obligations governed by foreign law; it is not a universal rewrite of every contract worldwide.
supported · S203
The central bank states that old banknotes and government notes remained valid through 31 May 2004; it describes later banknote exchange for 30 years but no later government-note exchange.
supported · S105
The archived 1949 issuance rules explicitly set 40,000 old Taiwan dollars equal to one new Taiwan dollar.
supported · S205
Article 6 initially provides unrestricted exchange before 1 December 1949 and temporary old-note circulation at the conversion rate during the exchange period.
supported · S205
Article 7 switches provincial public/private accounts to the new unit upon publication and allows six months to amend registered amounts.
supported · S205
Article 5 defines one new Taiwan dollar as US$0.20; this exchange standard is distinct from old-Taiwan-dollar succession.
supported_inference · S205
The inspected copy’s art.8 points to art.5 for existing-debt conversion although the old/new rate is in art.6. The discrepancy requires Gazette comparison, not silent correction.
supported_inference · S205
The reproduced Nigerian Decimal Currency Act converts one former Nigerian pound into two naira for covered contracts, liabilities and statutory references.
supported · S206
The reproduced exchange notice keeps pound-denominated notes as tender through 14 February 1973, ending that status on 15 February.
supported · S206
The same reproduced notice keeps former coins as tender through 30 September 1973, ending that status on 1 October.
supported · S206
The reproduced act’s commencement header and exchange-notice identifier contain unresolved dating/section inconsistencies, so they do not independently establish the legal commencement chronology.
supported_inference · S206
The consolidated Trinidad and Tobago Act gives 12 December 1964 as commencement for the relevant currency provisions; this is distinct from the previously sourced 14 December cash transition.
supported_inference · S207
Section 21(4) preserves former British Caribbean Currency Board tender until 1 January 1966 or an earlier date specified by Gazette notice.
supported · S207
The consolidation’s one-year claim window after 1 December 1994 is a later amended provision, not proof of the original 1964 redemption schedule.
supported_inference · S207
BOJ’s statutory extracts define a 100-cent dollar and show the 1969 amendment; later amended call-in provisions do not by themselves establish the 1969 withdrawal schedule.
supported_inference · S208
Ministry Paper 7 explains the ten-shilling dollar recommendation and abandons the earlier 2½-cent coin/halfpenny proposal; policy proposals must not be graphed as enacted currencies.
supported_inference · S209
Price Order 2044 takes effect on 10 July 1967 and converts covered maximum prices at one dollar per ten shillings, with rounding and a transitional machine-conversion exception.
supported · S210
Tanzania’s original Bank Act applies to both Tanganyika and Zanzibar and establishes the shilling divided into 100 cents.
supported · S211
For the transition provisions, one East African shilling equals one Tanzanian shilling.
supported · S211
Former regional notes/coins remain tender until proclamation; free exchange on demand applies while they remain tender, with later exchange periods separately authorisable.
supported · S211
Covered laws and instruments referencing East African shillings, cents or the twenty-shilling pound are converted under the new Act.
supported · S211
The Bank of Tanzania dates the beginning of its operations to 14 June 1966.
supported · S212
The specialist Banknote Book catalogue dates introduction of the first 5-, 10-, 20- and 100-shilling issues to 14 June 1966.
supported · S217
CBK distinguishes Legal Notice 252 of 1 July 1966 from banknote issue: the notes were legalised but not yet issued on that date.
supported · S213
CBK dates first national shilling coins to 10 April 1967.
supported · S213
CBK reports regional banknotes losing tender in Kenya in September 1967 and regional coins in April 1969.
supported · S213
Churchill’s 1921 statement describes the April 1920 Kenya/Uganda order adopting a local florin worth two sterling shillings and temporarily rating Indian rupees at that value.
supported · S214
The May 1921 decision uses a local shilling equal to half a florin and converts rupee contracts at two local shillings per rupee; extension to Tanganyika is prospective.
supported · S214
The indexed Bank of Uganda history dates first national currency issue to 1966; the full page was not retrieved.
supported · S215
The World Bank reports that the 1987 Ugandan currency conversion confiscated 30 percent of the value of balances; this is not adequately described by a nominal rescaling ratio alone.
supported_inference · S216
Armenia introduced dram notes on 22 November 1993 at 200 rubles per dram.
supported · S218
Specified 1–500-ruble Soviet notes dated 1961–1992 were allowed to circulate alongside the dram until 17 March 1994.
supported · S218
The manat entered circulation on 15 August 1992 and became sole legal tender on 1 January 1994.
supported · S219
On 1 January 2006 the new scale replaced 5,000 old manats per new manat; both scales circulated during 2006.
supported · S219
Kazakhstan’s national-bank timeline dates introduction of the tenge into circulation to 15 November 1993.
supported · S220
The National Bank dates introduction of the somoni to 30 October 2000 and defines 100 dirams per somoni.
supported · S221
The National Bank states that the Moldovan leu entered circulation on 29 November 1993.
supported · S222
Uzbekistan introduced the sum on 1 July 1994 at 1,000 sum-coupons per sum, according to its central bank’s account of Decree UP-870.
supported · S223
The same account dates the interim sum-coupon to 15 November 1993 and its sole-tender status to 1 January 1994.
supported · S223
The Bank of Russia’s release ends payment use of specified old notes and coins from 1 January 1999 and describes their exchange for 1997-series money at 1,000:1.
supported · S224
Its stated exchange horizon is historical policy; this dossier does not infer present redemption availability or a new ruble species from the scale change.
supported · S224
The peso became effective on 1 January 1992 at 10,000 australs per peso; the issuer attributes the change to Decree 2128 of 10 October 1991.
supported · S225
Law 901 establishes the boliviano from 1 January 1987 at one million pesos bolivianos per boliviano. Article 9 converts legal references; article 10 schedules exchange through 31 December 1987 and demonetisation from 1 January 1988.
supported · S226
The central bank dates establishment of the colón to the monetary reform of 1896.
supported · S227
The issuer dates creation of the lempira to 3 April 1926, but says it entered circulation in the 1930s.
supported · S228
Decree-Law 655 of 5 October 1943 established the guaraní. The issuer separately dates first banknote circulation to 1944.
supported · S229
The issuer states that the November 1924 monetary law created the quetzal as a gold-standard monetary unit.
supported · S230
The central bank records its first national paper issue in 1947, including RD$1, RD$5 and RD$10 notes. This is an issuer-era anchor, not a claim that every Dominican peso began in 1947.
supported · S231
The issuer's historical table says that from 30 April 1991 the córdoba replaced the old córdobas and became sole legal currency.
supported · S232
The pula launched on 23 August 1976, replacing the South African rand. The issuer reports an initial 100-day rand-for-pula exchange period with parity guaranteed.
supported · S233
The first dinar issue entered circulation on 1 April 1961, replacing what the issuer calls the Indian rupee, under Currency Law/Amiri Decree 41 of 1960.
supported · S234
The UAE Currency Board first issued UAE currency on 19 May 1973. The issuer explicitly excepts the 1,000-dirham note, which entered circulation in January 1976.
supported · S235
The Saudi Central Bank dates the first Saudi silver riyal to 1346 AH/1928 CE and the first silver riyal bearing the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's name to 1354 AH/1935 CE.
supported · S236
On 4 September 1985 the new sheqel replaced the sheqel at 1,000 old sheqalim per new sheqel.
supported · S237
The Jordanian dinar became the currency unit on 1 July 1950; use of the Palestinian pound ceased in the Kingdom from 30 September 1950.
supported · S238
The kina entered circulation on 19 April 1975. Australian dollars and kina were accepted together through the end of 1975; the Australian dollar ceased to be legal tender on 1 January 1976.
supported · S239
On 3 April 1967 the pa'anga replaced the pound at two pa'anga per pound.
supported · S240
The taka replaced the Pakistani rupee in 1972; regular-circulation coins followed in 1973.
supported · S241
The central bank's history dates decimal coinage to 17 March 1872, with 100 cents per rupee. It describes the central bank as inheriting the existing currency system in 1950.
supported · S242
The lilangeni launched on 6 September 1974. The issuer describes a dual-currency system with the rand and lilangeni as legal tender at equal value.
supported · S243
The rand replaced the South African pound on 14 February 1961; the issuer's decimal-coin account equates one pound with two rand.
supported · S244
The first convertible-mark notes of 50 fening, 1, 5 and 10 marks were issued on 22 June 1998; 20, 50 and 100 marks followed on 27 July 1998.
supported · S245
Switzerland established the national Swiss franc in 1850, before a single central bank existed; central-bank establishment in 1907 is a separate milestone.
supported · S246
At the beginning of 1981 Iceland issued new notes and coins and redeemed older money at one-hundredth of its old face value.
supported · S247
Hungary introduced the forint monetary system on 1 August 1946.
supported · S248
In the 1965 reform, ten lek of the 1947/1957 issues were equated to one lek of the 1964 and later issues.
supported · S249
The issuer dates the Currency Separation Act's effect to 8 February 1993, following a temporary shared Czechoslovak-koruna arrangement.
supported · S250
The issuer's research dates the account-unit change from rigsdaler to kroner to 1875 at two kroner per rigsdaler. It separately reports that new gold coins became legal tender on 1 January 1874.
supported · S251
The governor dates the Guinean franc's introduction as official currency to 1 March 1960.
supported · S252
The issuer attributes creation of the local Djibouti franc to French Decree 49/374 of 20 March 1949.
supported · S253
South Sudan introduced its pound on 18 July 2011, replacing the Sudanese pound.
supported · S254
The issuer distinguishes a 1961 northern currency-unification decree from first Somali-shilling banknotes in 1962.
supported · S255
The central bank traces its national currency to the pound first issued in early 1952, preceding the dinar name.
supported · S256
An Order in Council made the rupee the sole legal tender in Mauritius from 1876, according to the issuer's museum history.
supported · S257
The Republic's ORI became officially effective on 30 October 1946, following Hatta's broadcast the preceding evening.
supported · S258
The 10 June 1962 reform introduced won-denominated notes at ten hwan per won. The issuer expressly excepts 10- and 50-hwan coins from the immediate prohibition on hwan circulation.
supported · S259
The Aruban florin entered circulation with the central bank's inception on 1 January 1986.
supported · S260
The treasury began issuing Nepali currency notes in 1945; the account dates issuance from 17 September 1945 and describes continuing dual circulation with Indian currency.
supported · S261
The Maldives issued its first banknotes in 1947 in denominations of one-half, one, two, five and ten rufiyaa.
supported · S262
The Money Act of 17 April 1875 replaced speciedaler and skilling with kroner and øre; the subsequent banknote series began in 1877.
supported · S263
The Riksbank dates adoption of the krona coinage unit with the gold standard to 1873.
supported · S264
The currency board began its new issue on 1 May 1972. Jamaican currency returned through banks was exchanged for an equivalent Cayman amount; Jamaican notes and coins remained legal tender through 31 August 1972.
supported · S265
The IEOM dates creation of the CFP franc to 1945.
supported · S266
The BCEAO dates the common CFA framework to 26 December 1945. This is an ancestral framework anchor, not a claim that today's western and central issuing zones were already identical to their later form.
supported · S267
The BCEAO traces both western and central CFA terminology to the framework created on 26 December 1945; this does not settle the later separate issuing zones' formation.
supported · S267
The real entered circulation on 1 July 1994; one real equalled one URV or 2,750 cruzeiros reais at conversion.
supported · S268
Article 1 sets the peso uruguayo from 1 March 1993 at 1,000 nuevos pesos per peso uruguayo.
supported · S269
The BCRP communication sets the nuevo sol from 1 July 1991 at one million intis per nuevo sol, citing Law 25295 and Regulation 001-91-EF/90.
supported · S270
The Qatar–Dubai riyal period ended with a separate Qatari issue in 1973; the issuer dates the authority's founding Law 7 to 19 June 1973.
supported · S271
The issuer dates introduction of the rial Omani name/currency to 1972, following the earlier national-currency phase managed by the Muscat Currency Authority.
supported · S272
The New Hebrides franc was renamed vatu on 1 January 1981; vatu notes followed on 22 March 1982. Old New Hebrides-franc notes and Australian currency ceased legal tender on 1 April 1983.
supported · S273
Bhutan's Ministry of Finance first issued banknotes during the 1974 monetary reform, standardising the unit at 100 chhetrum per ngultrum.
supported · S274
The issuer museum dates modified Indian notes for Pakistan to 1 April 1948 and a government emergency note series to 1 October 1948.
supported · S275
Ukraine introduced the hryvnia during the currency reform of 2–16 September 1996.
supported · S276
The Congolese franc was instituted by Decree-Law 080 of 17 June 1998 and put into circulation on 30 June 1998, at 100,000 nouveaux zaïres or 14,000,000 old zaïres per franc.
supported · S277
The Caribbean guilder became legal tender in Curaçao and Sint Maarten on 31 March 2025; the announcement records the first ceremonial exchange from Netherlands Antillean guilders that day.
supported · S278
The National Bank commemorates 20 March 1980 as the reintroduction of the Khmer riel.
supported · S279
The National Bank of Egypt first issued banknotes on 3 April 1899, according to the central bank's currency history.
supported · S280
The Algerian dinar was created in 1964, and the central bank issued its first four note denominations that year.
supported · S281
On 1 January 2005 the ariary replaced the Malagasy franc as official unit of account at one ariary per five francs.
supported · S282
The present kip was introduced in 1979 at one new kip per 100 liberated kip.
supported · S283
The Falkland Islands Currency Note Order 1899 came into operation on 16 October 1899, authorising government paper denominations from five shillings upward.
supported · S284
The BCM communiqué dates launch of the ouguiya reform to 1 January 2018 and announces extension of specified old coin denominations' validity through 2019.
supported · S285
The central bank dates the first Bahraini dinar issue to 1965.
supported · S286
Bank Al-Maghrib dates adoption of the dirham as the new monetary unit to October 1959.
supported · S287
A 1 April 1978 resolution directed monetary unification; the issuer says old northern and southern notes had been recalled by 2 May 1978 as the unified notes circulated nationwide.
supported · S288
Banque du Liban began issuing Lebanese-pound notes in 1964.
supported · S289
Gibraltar's first government banknotes were issued in 1914 under emergency Ordinance 10 of 1914.
supported · S290
Turkmenistan introduced the manat on 1 November 1993.
supported · S291
The official legal catalogue identifies Law 84 of 28 June 1904, published in Gazette 33 of 5 July, as establishing the balboa and American gold-dollar legal tender.
supported · S292
The lari was introduced on 25 September 1995 and became Georgia's sole legal tender on 2 October 1995.
supported · S293
The Reserve Bank's conference paper dates introduction of the Malawi kwacha to February 1971.
supported · S294
The notice takes effect on 1 July 2006 and provides simultaneous circulation of the old and new metical families through 31 December 2006, followed by bank and central-bank exchange phases.
supported · S295
The issuer brochure describes the dobra's 1976 legal creation, first issuance in 1977, and the planned 2018 rescaling at 1,000 old dobras per new-family dobra.
supported · S296
The Siamese Currency Notes Act was promulgated on 24 June 1902; the new Banknotes Department first served the public on 23 September 1902, inaugurating the modern government note system.
supported · S297
The government retrospective dates introduction of the nakfa to 1997.
supported · S298
The scholarly account dates Bank-e Melli's first rial-denominated notes to April 1932 and connects the rial unit to the 1931 currency law.
supported · S299
The issuer describes a new-dinar series after the 1994 reform, later Yugoslav issues in 2000–2002, and National Bank of Serbia notes in 2003.
supported · S300
The statistical note uses one Sudanese pound equal to 100 Sudanese dinars from 1 July 2007.
supported · S301
The som was introduced on 10 May 1993, divided into 100 tyiyn.
supported · S302
The 2025 State of the Nation address dates the creation of the kwanza to 1977.
supported · S303
The bank's centenary history describes provisional 1923 notes made from overprinted gold-deposit certificates, followed by regular American Bank Note Company issues in 1924.
supported · S304
The BRH history dates a first paper issue of 300,000 gourdes to May 1813.
supported · S305
The CPA scheduled the note exchange for 15 October 2003–15 January 2004: one old dinar for one new dinar, but one Iraqi 'Swiss' dinar for 150 new dinars.
supported · S306
KDI reports a 2009 exchange of existing notes for new notes at 100:1 while state-set prices were left unchanged.
supported · S307
The bank dates the monetary reform act naming the togrog to 22 February 1925 and first issue to December 1925.
supported · S308
The 1974 Currency Act assigned currency issue, reissue and redemption jointly to the Financial Secretary and Accountant General acting as currency commissioners.
supported · S309
The decree report provides for a new Syrian-pound scale from 1 January 2026 at 100 old pounds per new pound, with withdrawal and coexistence governed separately.
supported · S310
The central bank reports that the 2005 currency reform removed six zeros from the currency.
supported · S311
The Bank of Zambia dates the kwacha's rebasing by a factor of 1,000 to 1 January 2013.
supported · S312
Article 1 of the translated 18 October 1958 law defines the dinar as the monetary unit, divided into 1,000 Tunisian francs or millimes.
supported · S313
The resolution divides specified prices and financial balances by 1,000,000 for the new scale and applies the wage-adjustment rule from 1 October 2021.
supported · S314
Article 7 allows qualifying older banknotes of at least 10,000 bolívares to circulate after 1 October 2021 pending a separate demonetisation resolution.
supported · S314
The 23 November 1979 agreement provides that the central bank assumes the former Institut d'Emission's monetary-issuance rights and obligations and identifies its currency as the Comorian franc.
supported · S315
The issuer history describes Rwanda-Burundi bank notes and coins overprinted for Burundi from February 1964, and gives 31 December 1965 as the circulation limit for those notes.
supported · S316
The bank's institutional timeline dates the first national currency issue to 1977.
supported · S317
The issuer's history dates the introduction of its described 1945 banknote series to 23 July 1945.
supported · S318
RBI describes monetary continuity during 1947–1950 and dates the Republic's distinctive coin issue to 15 August 1950.
supported · S319
The central bank's 1979 table records the 1975 change from escudos to pesos at 1,000 escudos per peso.
supported · S320
NBP dates the redenomination to 1 January 1995 at 10,000 old złoty per new złoty.
supported · S321
Article 1 provides for redenomination on 1 July 2005 at 10,000 old lei per new leu.
supported · S322
The reproduced decree prescribes a 1 July 2016 rescaling at 10,000 units of the 2000 currency series for one unit of the 2009 series.
supported · S323
The IMF reports that the afghani conversion began on 7 October 2002 and was completed on 2 January 2003.
supported · S324
The IMF history dates the issue of the loti to January 1980.
supported · S325
The national bank's statistical footnote identifies a factor-of-100 denar denomination in May 1993.
supported · S326
The government history dates the transfer of currency issuance from the Burma Currency Board to the Union Bank's currency department to 1 July 1952.
supported · S327
The contemporary IMF article describes separate Rwandan and Burundian currencies being introduced after the creation of separate central banks in spring 1964.
supported · S328
Bundesbank dates the tala's introduction to 10 July 1967 at two tala per former pound.
supported · S329
Bundesbank records reciprocal legal-tender recognition in North and South Yemen on 4 May 1990 at one Yemeni dinar to 26 Yemeni rials, preceding political unification on 22 May.
supported · S329
The official survey instructions identify the Monetary Integration Law, effective from January 2001, as setting 8.75 colones per US dollar.
supported · S330
Decree-Law 17 sets monetary unification from 1 January 2021 and initially provides 180 days for withdrawing the convertible peso; this does not establish the final deadline after later amendments.
supported · S331
The consolidated Currency Ordinance identifies the Saint Helena pound divided into 100 pence and sterling parity; the underlying ordinance dates to 1975.
supported · S332
ISO Amendment 170 assigns VED as an auxiliary redenomination code and explicitly leaves VES in place; it does not identify a separate digital currency species.
supported_inference · S333
The 1905 order recites a 19 May 1898 order making British India’s silver rupee the East Africa Protectorate’s standard coin.
supported · S334
Article 4 retains the British Indian silver rupee as the standard coin of East Africa and Uganda, governing money transactions unless expressly agreed otherwise.
supported · S334
Article 5 provides subsidiary coins expressed in cents or hundredths of a rupee.
supported · S334
Articles 14 and 16 authorise local government currency notes, payable on demand in current coin and legal tender with a Currency Board-office exception.
supported · S334
The 1905 order requires territorial commencement proclamations and allows different provisions to start on different dates; its signature date is not first note issue.
supported_inference · S334
Article 13 accepts qualifying sovereigns at fifteen rupees each; this is a tender valuation, not evidence of a sterling-to-rupee replacement.
supported_inference · S334
Kenya’s 1920–21 report describes the 26 April 1920 order converting rupee references in contracts to florins at one florin per rupee.
supported · S335
The report says the 1920 currency order was brought into force by a proclamation dated 19 July; its precise operative clause was not inspected.
supported · S335
The report dates transfer of the local Currency Board’s powers, duties and liabilities to the East African Currency Board to 31 July 1920.
supported · S335
The report records one-rupee EACB notes made unlimited tender on 11 May 1920, and December legislation authorising florin/pound notes. Unit change and note denomination overlap.
supported_inference · S335
Kenyan Proclamation 177 brings the 1921 principal currency order and its No.2 amendment into force on 1 January 1922.
supported · S336
Article 5 converts covered former rupee or florin amounts into twice as many shillings, and former cents into twice as many shilling cents.
supported · S336
Article 9(3) preserves old notes and coins as tender until separately ended, rating each rupee or florin at two shillings.
supported · S336
The 7 November amendment replaces the principal order’s subsidiary-coin exception with two shilling cents for one florin cent, effective alongside the principal order.
supported · S336
Article 9(2) requires commencement by territorial proclamation; Kenya’s 1 January 1922 date does not establish Uganda’s commencement or first physical shilling issue.
supported_inference · S336
Article 5(1) values covered sterling payments at twenty local shillings per pound; this standard relationship is separate from rupee/florin succession.
supported_inference · S336
Kenya Act s.23 requires at-par exchange of EACB notes and coins while they remain tender, with further at-par exchange periods separately authorisable.
supported · S337
Section 22(4) leaves former-board tender duration to ministerial determination; s.24 separately qualifies exchange of damaged currency.
supported · S337
Legal Notice 253 keeps EACB notes as Kenyan tender for one year from the start of their exchange into national currency; it supplies no exchange-start date.
supported · S338
The Malawi consolidation gives 15 February 1971 for Part III’s currency conversion, separately from Parts I–II commencing on 15 September 1970.
supported · S339
Section 15 converts covered pound, shilling and pence references at two kwacha per pound and ten tambala per shilling, with contextual exceptions.
supported · S339
Section 16 requires domestic-currency payments in the new unit while explicitly valuing old notes and coins for continued use; foreign-currency payments are excepted.
supported · S339
Section 17 applies conversion to an aggregate or calculated product rather than separately to every component amount.
supported · S339
The payment table maps a former florin to twenty tambala and threepence to two and one-half tambala; decimal commencement alone does not prove old-coin extinction.
supported_inference · S339
Bundesbank’s table dates the Zambian pound to 16 November 1964 at parity with a unit it labels Rhodesian pound; precise federal predecessor mapping remains unresolved.
supported · S340
The same table dates the kwacha to 16 January 1968, at two original-scale kwacha per Zambian pound.
supported · S340
It dates the 2013 rescaling to 1 January at one new kwacha for one thousand old kwacha, corroborating the previously inspected Bank of Zambia annual report.
supported_inference · S340
The 2013 rebasing is modeled as a unit-epoch change within the Zambian kwacha continuity; the pound-to-kwacha transition remains a separate predecessor conversion.
supported_inference · S340
Krus and Schuler date the Southern Rhodesia Currency Board’s establishment to 3 January 1939 and its currency fund to 1 April; these are institutional milestones.
supported · S341
They report first board notes on 1 March 1940 in Southern Rhodesia, 8 June in Nyasaland and 1 November in Northern Rhodesia.
supported · S341
They describe Central Africa Currency Board succession on 12 March 1954 and Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland succession on 1 April 1956; these do not independently prove new units.
supported_inference · S341
The 1963 dissolution order ends the Federation immediately before 1 January 1964; its currency provisions preserve a separate transitional life.
supported_inference · S342
Section 66 continues federal currency tender until 1 January 1965, or a ministerially appointed later date no later than 1 June 1965.
supported · S342
Section 66 preserves the federal pound’s sterling parity until demonetisation; it does not prescribe a national successor’s cash-exchange rate.
supported_inference · S342
Section 70 provides for bank dissolution on 31 December 1965 or an earlier appointed date, separately from currency demonetisation and asset distribution.
supported · S342
The indexed Bank of Zambia history’s opening mentions a 1965 kwacha, while its detailed account places the change in 1968; the discrepancy is retained for correction checking.
supported_inference · S343
That detailed indexed account says pound withdrawal was completed on 31 January 1974; this remains an unconfirmed issuer-history report pending original notice.
supported · S343
The indexed Bank of Uganda timeline dates its first national coin to 2 January 1967, a distinct milestone from opening the bank in August 1966.
supported · S344
The same indexed timeline says EACB notes ceased Ugandan tender on 1 April 1967; this is retained as a disputed report, not an adjudicated withdrawal date.
supported · S344
Gold’s indexed IMF account reports former-board notes losing tender on 14 September 1967 under a joint decision; original territorial notices are needed to resolve Uganda’s conflicting timeline.
supported_inference · S345
Defined ECU references in legal instruments become euro references at 1:1 from 1 January 1999; an undefined ECU reference carries a rebuttable presumption.
supported · S346
Euro introduction alone neither discharges obligations nor permits unilateral alteration or termination; parties’ agreements remain relevant.
supported · S346
Use the full six-significant-figure national-units-per-euro rate without truncation; derived inverse rates are prohibited for operational conversion.
supported · S346
National-unit cross-conversions pass through euro, allowing an intermediate amount rounded to at least three decimals; final payment rounding follows article 5.
supported · S346
Regulation 974/98 substitutes the euro for each participating state’s currency on its adoption date; cash changeover is separately defined.
supported · S347
During transition the national units remain subdivisions of the euro; existing instrument denominations and specified payment choices are preserved.
supported · S347
National cash can retain territorial legal tender after adoption; article 15 allows national shortening of its maximum post-cash-changeover period.
supported · S347
Article 16 continues issuer exchange under national laws or practices; tender loss is therefore distinct from the last possible redemption.
supported_inference · S347
ECB distinguishes agreed euro use in Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City from use without a formal arrangement in Montenegro and Kosovo.
supported · S349
The 1994 ECU definition includes sterling and Danish-krone components; basket inclusion is distinct from later national euro adoption.
supported_inference · S352
Decision 75/250 defines the Lomé aid EUA as a nine-currency basket valued using daily market rates.
supported · S353
The decision’s preamble benchmarks the initial EUA value to the IMF’s 28 June 1974 SDR value; it does not establish SDR-to-EUA currency replacement.
supported_inference · S353
The December 1978 resolution specifies identical initial ECU and EUA value/composition and plans EMS establishment for 1 January 1979.
supported · S354
BIS dates signature of the EMS/ECU agreement in Basel to 13 March 1979, separately from the earlier planned January start.
supported_inference · S356
Decision 80/1184 replaces the EUA with ECU for covered ACP assistance and previous-convention operations from 1 January 1981.
supported · S355
Euro banknotes and coins entered use on 1 January 2002, following the currency’s 1 January 1999 launch.
supported · S349
ECB reports area-wide completion of the first cash changeover by 1 March 2002; this is not a common last-tender date for every predecessor.
supported_inference · S357
ECB’s 2026 table separates note/coin redemption: France 17 February 2012/2005, Croatia unlimited/31 December 2025; national eligibility rules still apply.
supported · S350
The ECB table gives Dutch banknote exchange until 1 January 2032 but excludes guilders obtained from commercial activity after 27 January 2002.
supported · S350
ECB’s 1 January 2026 announcement confirms Bulgarian euro cash circulation and the twenty-first euro-area membership.
supported · S351
1 EUR = 13.7603 ATS.
supported · S348
Austria: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 40.3399 BEF.
supported · S348
Belgium: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 1.95583 DEM.
supported · S348
Germany: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 166.386 ESP.
supported · S348
Spain: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 5.94573 FIM.
supported · S348
Finland: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 6.55957 FRF.
supported · S348
France: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 0.787564 IEP.
supported · S348
Ireland: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 1936.27 ITL.
supported · S348
Italy: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 40.3399 LUF.
supported · S348
Luxembourg: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 2.20371 NLG.
supported · S348
Netherlands: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 200.482 PTE.
supported · S348
Portugal: euro adoption 1999-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 340.750 GRD.
supported · S348
Greece: euro adoption 2001-01-01; cash 2002-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 239.640 SIT.
supported · S348
Slovenia: euro adoption 2007-01-01; cash 2007-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 0.585274 CYP.
supported · S348
Cyprus: euro adoption 2008-01-01; cash 2008-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 0.429300 MTL.
supported · S348
Malta: euro adoption 2008-01-01; cash 2008-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 30.1260 SKK.
supported · S348
Slovakia: euro adoption 2009-01-01; cash 2009-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 15.6466 EEK.
supported · S348
Estonia: euro adoption 2011-01-01; cash 2011-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 0.702804 LVL.
supported · S348
Latvia: euro adoption 2014-01-01; cash 2014-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 3.45280 LTL.
supported · S348
Lithuania: euro adoption 2015-01-01; cash 2015-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 7.53450 HRK.
supported · S348
Croatia: euro adoption 2023-01-01; cash 2023-01-01.
supported · S347
1 EUR = 1.95583 BGN.
supported · S348
Bulgaria: euro adoption 2026-01-01; cash 2026-01-01.
supported · S347
German-mark legal tender ended on 31 December 2001; voluntary retail/banking acceptance continued through 28 February 2002.
supported · S358
The ECB evaluation preserves a December 2001 plan with distinct national last-tender dates; the table is not treated as proof of all actual outcomes.
supported_inference · S359
The graph represents 21 national substitutions as converging conversion branches, with ECU reference succession separately typed; no country is chosen as the euro’s sole primary parent.
supported_inference · S347
Rare Republican gold predates regular aureus production. Alternative scholarly datings; neither proves an uninterrupted franc lineage.
context_only · S360
Large-scale aureus production begins under Caesar. Not the first Roman gold coin.
supported · S360
Constantine establishes the solidus; aurei persist into the 320s. Overlapping transition, not a one-day universal exchange.
Merovingian gold belongs to the late Roman solidus/tremissis tradition. Broad numismatic succession; no fixed conversion asserted.
A catalogued Mouzon gold issue anchors Merovingian coinage.
supported · S366
Silver deniers progressively replace Merovingian gold issues. Publisher summary supports the broad transition, not an exact reform date.
qualified · S367
Archaeological evidence bounds the introduction of the Roman denarius. Catalogue dates its specimen from 211 BCE; do not collapse the debate into a certain first year.
supported · S362
Denier derives from Latin denarius. A lexical link is not continuous circulation or a redemption rule.
supported · S363
Sou / sol derives from solidus.
supported · S364
Livre preserves the Latin pound name, libra. An inherited name does not preserve a constant metal weight.
supported · S365
Pépin’s Vernon capitulary regulates the Carolingian denier. A dated legislative anchor, not a claim that every aspect of the reform began on the same day.
Charlemagne’s heavy-denier reform is dated to winter 793–794. Scholarly reconstruction from the 794 Frankfurt capitulary; no exact day adopted. The 781 Mantua act concerns Italy.
The accounting structure is 1 livre = 20 sous = 240 deniers. Livre and sou here are account units; this is not a basket of three necessarily minted coins.
A Saint-Martin Carolingian denier continues a Merovingian reverse design. An object-based bridge, not proof of uninterrupted mint administration.
supported · S392
Saint-Martin silver deniers are attested within Merovingian coinage.
supported · S392
Saint-Martin’s light denier is a local Carolingian issue.
supported · S392
Saint-Martin provides a documented local minting tradition across these periods. Continuity is a synthesis of attestations; gaps and the legal nature of early mint privilege remain.
A surviving abbey denier supplies the high-medieval Tours anchor.
supported · S393
Philippe Auguste adopts the Saint-Martin type for western royal money after the Norman conquest. Parisis money coexisted. This does not establish a universal replacement in 1203.
supported · S127
Royal tournois adoption coexists with the parisis system. Parallel systems; this edge is neither descent nor a fixed-rate conversion.
supported · S127
Tournois is the Tours-derived variant of the livre–sou–denier system. No claim that metal content stayed fixed from the Carolingian period.
The franc à cheval is authorized at one livre tournois. One account livre equals one franc coin at this tariff; the coin did not replace the accounting system.
The first issues follow in February 1361. Separate authorization from minting.
supported · S372
Charles V’s franc à pied continues the royal franc coin series. Date is the catalogue attribution, not an independently inspected ordinance.
supported · S395
Henri III’s silver franc is valued at one livre tournois.
supported · S115
The revolutionary monetary unit reuses the historic franc name. Not one continuously circulating national currency since 1360.
The law of 18 germinal III names the franc in place of the livre. Naming law; separate from silver specification and later conversion tariff.
supported · S394
The silver franc is defined as 5 g at 900‰ fineness: 4.5 g fine silver. 28 thermidor III; metal definition is not the earliest naming of the modern unit.
The tariff equates 1.0125 livres tournois with 1 franc. Preferred reported date: 25 germinal IV / 14 April 1796 (S16). S17 says 24 germinal. Day remains withheld pending the original act.
The germinal reform establishes the franc’s bimetallic regime. 7 germinal XI; not a new currency born in 1803.
supported · S375
The new franc replaces 100 old francs.
supported · S376
The euro succeeds the French franc at the irrevocable conversion rate. Book-money adoption; cash followed in 2002.
Euro notes and coins enter circulation in France.
supported · S378
France’s dual-circulation period ends. Legal-tender end is distinct from later redemption deadlines.
supported · S378
Assignats are monetary instruments denominated in the monetary units of the period. Do not insert them as a separate universal parent currency between livre and franc.
supported · S391
Metropolitan French coins circulate in colonial Guinea. An attested regional extension; this row does not assign one first-adoption date to every overseas territory.
supported · S383
The decree establishes the CFA grouping and its metropolitan-franc parity. Signed 25 December; effective 26 December. It groups existing territorial francs, not a single universal cash exchange.
supported · S396
The same decree separately establishes the Pacific-franc grouping. New Caledonia, French Oceania and New Hebrides; CFP is a sibling of CFA.
supported · S396
Initial CFA/metropolitan parity.
supported · S396
Initial Pacific/metropolitan parity.
supported · S396
Early CFP dollar parity. Exchange anchor, not US-dollar ancestry.
supported · S387
The CFA parity becomes two old French francs.
supported · S267
France’s new unit restates the CFA parity. The CFA unit itself is not divided by 100.
supported · S267
The western CFA branch develops under BCEAO. 1959 is an institutional marker, not a fresh redenomination or first CFA coinage.
The central CFA branch develops through its own central-bank institutions. Retain a separate currency identity. Exact predecessor-bank operational dates are not asserted here.
qualified · S381
Western CFA devaluation takes effect. Decision on 11 January; not a new CFA unit.
Central CFA devaluation takes effect. Decision signed 11 January; publication on 24 March is not the effective date.
supported · S382
Western CFA euro anchor.
Central CFA euro anchor. Equal parity does not merge XAF with XOF.
supported · S381
CFP euro anchor. Keep this exact orientation; a rounded reciprocal is not the legal definition.
supported · S387
Guinea leaves CFA currency for its own franc.
supported · S383
The syli replaces the first Guinean franc. Contemporary notice establishes changeover; 1971 note-series dates are not adoption dates.
supported · S397
Guinea restores the franc. Use changeover date rather than 1985 note-series dating.
supported · S98
Mali introduces its own franc.
supported · S98
Mali returns to CFA currency. Territorial return to an existing currency, not creation of XOF from the Malian franc.
Mauritania introduces the ouguiya. Effective date per Bundesbank; earlier political decisions should be separate events.
supported · S98
Mauritania changes the size of the ouguiya unit.
supported · S98
Guinea-Bissau exchanges pesos for CFA francs. Currency changeover is separate from union accession.
supported · S98
Equatorial Guinea adopts CFA currency. Contemporary notice specifies 2 January; preferred over the 1 January date in later Bundesbank metadata.
supported · S407
A distinct banknote issuer begins Madagascar franc issues following the 1925 law. French money circulated earlier; this is not the beginning of all money or all francs on the island.
supported · S402
The Malagasy franc designation marks the independent national branch. Do not erase prior Madagascar issues or equate 1963 with its first franc notes.
supported_inference · S402
National franc issues continue the local franc monetary history.
supported_inference · S402
The ariary becomes the accounting unit. Ariary-denominated new notes had already launched on 31 July 2003.
supported · S402
New ariary-denominated notes precede the accounting change.
supported · S402
Comoros has local franc issues under BMC and then IEC. Institutional and regional continuity; exact birth of a distinct national unit is not forced.
supported_inference · S385
The cooperation agreement and BCC succession formalize the Comorian branch. Agreement signed 23 November 1979 names the franc; BCC succeeds IEC on 1 July 1981. Treaty entry into force depends on notifications.
Signed cooperation agreement defines the Comorian parity. Date of signature; not asserted as the legal effective date.
supported · S315
Comoros adopts its distinct devalued parity. Not the CFA rate of 100 per French franc.
Comorian euro anchor. Use published legal parity; do not replace it with an unrounded arithmetic product.
Djibouti’s separate dollar-linked franc follows the territorial CFA period. Treaty cites decrees dated 17 March; local gazette labels 20 March. No local redemption ratio is asserted.
Initial Djibouti dollar anchor. This exchange anchor is not a predecessor-currency conversion.
supported · S253
The Helvetic franc uses a French-inspired decimal scheme on a Bernese monetary basis. Different silver standard; no 1:1 French-franc identity.
supported · S401
The Helvetic experiment precedes federal unification. Cantonal fragmentation intervenes; not an uninterrupted national currency.
supported_inference · S401
Federal Swiss money replaces a plurality of local currencies. No universal cantonal 1:1 exchange rate is supplied.
The federal Swiss franc adopts the French silver-franc standard. Standard relationship, not French currency replacement in Switzerland.
supported · S388
Belgium legislates the French decimal silver-franc standard. Law date; does not assert a blanket 1:1 exchange of every preceding local unit.
supported · S398
France participates in the Latin Monetary Union convention. Coordination of national coinages, not creation of a single currency.
supported · S398
Belgium participates in the common coinage convention.
supported · S398
Switzerland participates in the common coinage convention.
supported · S398
The name Luxembourg franc first appears in a grand-ducal decree. Local monetary history and franc use are older; name attestation is not a simple currency birth.
supported · S399
Luxembourg–Belgium parity is formalized.
supported · S399
Luxembourg does not follow the full Belgian devaluation.
supported · S399
Equal Luxembourg–Belgium parity is restored.
supported · S399
Belgian euro conversion.
supported · S377
Luxembourg euro conversion.
supported · S377
The Congo Free State establishes its franc unit. This is the Congo / Belgian colonial branch, not the Central African CFA franc of the other Congo.
The Congo adopts a franc system conforming to the Latin Union standard. Standard adoption does not establish treaty membership or direct replacement of Belgian francs.
supported · S409
Belgian banknotes are provisionally accepted for colonial taxes and duties. Legal circulation relationship; not a new Congo currency or universal predecessor conversion.
supported · S409
Zaire replaces the old Congolese franc.
New zaire replaces zaire at three million to one. Bundesbank dates introduction 22 October; BCC dates the reform 28 September. Keep both milestones without pretending their legal distinction is verified.
The Congolese franc returns.
Rwanda–Burundi adopts a shared franc.
supported · S98
Rwanda adopts its national franc.
supported · S98
Burundi adopts its national franc.
Algeria restates its franc unit.
supported · S98
The dinar replaces the Algerian new franc.
supported · S98
Morocco’s dirham reform takes effect. Signed 17 October; gazette and effective date 19 October. Old francs temporarily remain legal tender.
supported · S405
Tunisia introduces the dinar.
supported · S98
The 1945 Pacific grouping explicitly includes the New Hebrides. This does not date the subsequent separation of its monetary arrangements from the other CFP territories.
supported · S396
Vatu succeeds the New Hebrides franc.
supported · S98
Banque du Sénégal is established. First notes follow in 1855; establishment and note issue are distinct.
supported · S379
BAO succeeds the Banque du Sénégal.
supported · S379
AOF–Togo emission moves to the new institute.
supported · S379
BCEAO succeeds the institute. BCEAO’s own note series follows in 1962.
supported · S379
BMC becomes a semi-public issuing establishment.
supported · S385
The Comoros emission institute is created.
supported · S385
IEC takes charge of the Comoros emission service. Transfer date under decree 75-443 of 30 May 1975.
supported · S385
BCC succeeds IEC. Do not equate an issuer succession automatically with a new unit or first franc circulation.
supported · S385
The shared Rwanda–Burundi issuing bank is created. Separate from the currency date of 2 September.
supported · S400
Burundi’s central-bank law is enacted. Operations begin 19 May 1964.
supported · S400
Burundi’s central bank begins operating.
supported · S400
The Estonian mark was initially defined at parity with the ostmark. Initial standard, not proof of exclusive replacement of every circulating currency.
supported · S410
The kroon replaced 100 Estonian marks.
supported · S410
Estonia introduced Soviet rubles at 1.25 rubles per kroon. Kroons temporarily co-circulated; the displayed ratio is kroons per ruble.
supported · S411
Estonian kroons lost validity under Soviet occupation.
supported · S410
The Soviet ruble underwent monetary reform in 1947. No uniform conversion ratio asserted: cash, deposits and other claims require separate treatment.
supported · S410
The 1961 reform rescaled the Soviet ruble tenfold.
supported · S410
Estonia generally exchanged 10 rubles per kroon. Cash above 1,500 rubles used 50:1; do not apply 10:1 to every holding.
supported · S98
The restored kroon revived the interwar currency name and symbols.
supported · S410
Latvia defined one lats as 50 Latvian rubles. Regulation date; this does not date every cash issue.
supported · S413
The Soviet currency system displaced the lats, withdrawn on 25 March 1941.
supported · S414
Latvian rubles entered alongside Soviet and Russian notes at 1:1. The inherited ruble-zone unit, not the later 1998 Russian ruble scale.
supported · S412
The Latvian ruble became the sole mandatory domestic payment unit; bank accounts were converted.
supported · S412
The lats entered at 200 Latvian rubles per lats. Five-lats notes came first. The June date in Bundesbank metadata refers to later denominations; it is not first lats circulation.
supported · S412
Latvia restored the lats name after the Soviet-era interruption.
supported · S412
Lithuania introduced litas and began exchanging ostmarks. A floating ostmark conversion is not assigned an invented single fixed ratio.
supported · S416
Soviet rubles entered Lithuania at 0.9 ruble per litas. The rate did not protect all deposits. Litas circulated alongside rubles until March 1941.
supported · S417
Lithuania’s interwar litas was prohibited under Soviet rule.
supported · S417
Lithuania used commodity coupons alongside ruble payments. These restricted coupons are not backdated as an autonomous national currency.
supported · S415
General coupons became ruble substitutes before the talonas became the sole currency.
supported · S415
Lithuania replaced rubles with talonas at 1:1.
Lithuania exchanged 100 talonas per litas.
The 1993 litas revived the interwar national currency name. The timeline establishes two introductions separated by Soviet incorporation; no direct interwar-to-modern conversion implied.
supported_inference · S416
Croatian dinars replaced Yugoslav dinars at par.
supported · S98
One kuna replaced 1,000 Croatian dinars.
Slovenian tolars replaced Yugoslav dinars at par.
Regular tolar banknotes followed the 1991 temporary payment notes. A cash-series milestone, not a second currency birth.
supported · S419
The krone replaced the gulden at two kronen per gulden. Gulden notes continued through the transition to 1900.
supported · S426
The imperial currency area broke into successor systems, including the Austrian crown. Period-level separation; no precise stamping date or universal conversion procedure asserted.
supported_inference · S424
The schilling replaced the Austrian crown at 10,000 crowns per schilling. Year-level date distinguishes the accounting law from the March cash milestones.
supported · S425
Austria adopted the Reichsmark at 1.5 schillings per Reichsmark.
supported · S424
Postwar Austrian schillings replaced Reichsmarks at 1:1 under restricted exchange rules. One of two incoming monetary instruments; no exclusive single parent assigned.
Allied military schillings were also exchanged into Austrian schillings at 1:1. The military issue and Reichsmark were coexisting predecessors; per-person cash limits applied.
Austria restored the schilling after the Reichsmark interval.
supported · S425
The 1947 reform exchanged schilling notes at 3:1, except 150 per person at par. Cash reform only. No new universally rescaled account unit or blanket deposit conversion is asserted.
supported · S424
Czechoslovak currency separated from the Austro-Hungarian crown through the 1919 reform. Stamping occurred in March; national koruna legislation followed. No confiscated/blocked holdings treated as freely convertible cash.
The Protectorate koruna succeeded the Czechoslovak currency in Bohemia and Moravia.
supported_inference · S420
Slovakia established its own koruna in place of the Czechoslovak currency.
supported · S422
Czech and Slovak monetary areas were reunified into the Czechoslovak koruna at 1:1. Parity of monetary units; unrestricted conversion of all cash or deposits is not implied.
The wartime Slovak koruna joined the restored Czechoslovak currency at 1:1.
supported · S423
The 1953 Czechoslovak reform used differentiated conversion rates. No single universal ratio stored. The source summarizes rates from 5:1 to 50:1.
Czech korunas replaced Czechoslovak korunas at par.
supported · S98
Slovak korunas replaced Czechoslovak korunas at par.
supported · S98
Finland introduced the markka as one quarter of a silver ruble in 1860, replacing rubles in accounts and transactions from 1863. A staged unit derivation within the Russian Empire, not instantaneous withdrawal of every Russian coin.
supported_inference · S427
One new Finnish markka replaced 100 old markkaa.
supported · S98
Greece selected the phoenix in 1828; the first coins were minted in 1829 bearing 1828 dates. Decision, inscription date and minting are distinct observations.
supported · S429
The phoenix was valued at one sixth of the Spanish dollar. A valuation standard, not evidence that all dollars were compulsorily converted into phoenixes.
supported · S429
Otto’s decree replaced the phoenix with the drachma.
supported · S428
The modern drachma deliberately reused the ancient Greek currency name. No continuous ancient-to-modern currency or fixed conversion asserted.
supported · S428
The postwar drachma replaced 50 billion occupation-era drachmas. Date of the first postwar banknotes; the underlying law is dated 10 November 1944.
One new drachma replaced 1,000 postwar drachmas.
supported · S431
The Saorstat pound established a national currency at sterling parity under the 1927 Act, followed by the 1928 issue. National monetary separation with continuing sterling circulation; not a revival conversion from the pre-1826 Irish unit.
supported_inference · S153
Saorstat pound was renamed Irish pound without a new unit scale.
supported · S153
Malta’s local pound-note system developed within the British pound framework before the independent decimal coinage. Gradual lineage supported; the exact legal moment of a separate Maltese currency remains open. Central-bank founding in 1968 is not treated as its birth.
Malta decimalized while retaining the pound as its unit.
supported · S433
Maltese pound was renamed Maltese lira.
supported · S98
Cyprus introduced a local coinage system of 180 piastres per English gold pound. Sterling-derived local unit; gradual replacement of non-British coins. Exact autonomous-currency separation and Ottoman exchange terms remain open.
qualified · S434
The Cyprus pound was divided into 1,000 mils.
supported · S434
Cyprus replaced mils with 100 cents to the same pound. Subdivision change, not a hundredfold rescaling of pounds.
supported · S434
Bulgaria’s 1952 reform converted cash at 100:1, with different rules for prices and deposits. No universal valuation stored.
supported · S98
One new lev replaced 10 old leva.
supported · S98
One new lev replaced 1,000 old leva.
supported · S98
Prussian thalers entered the imperial mark at three marks per thaler. Conversion framework; not an instantaneous withdrawal of every coin.
supported · S435
South German florins entered at twelve marks per seven florins. Exact rational stated in prose; no rounded decimal valuation.
supported · S435
The mark became the common currency of the German Reich.
supported · S435
Gold redemption ended; the mark continued on an inconvertible basis. An internal monetary-regime change, not a new currency born at par.
supported · S435
Goldmark was a gold-value accounting unit, distinct from circulating marks. Date anchors divergence from gold parity, not the birth of this accounting convention.
supported · S435
Rentenmark notes entered alongside marks; one Rentenmark equalled one trillion marks. Issue date differs from the 1 November date printed on notes; no exclusive replacement asserted.
supported · S436
The monetary legislation established the Reichsmark framework.
supported · S436
Reichsmark replaced the mark at one Reichsmark per trillion marks. Effective introduction; the legislation was dated August.
supported · S436
Rentenmark notes continued alongside Reichsmarks at equal unit value. Not immediate extinction of Rentenmark notes.
supported · S436
Deutsche Mark displaced Reichsmark in western Germany under differentiated conversion rules. No universal 10:1 factor; ongoing payments and financial holdings received different treatment.
The western reform also invalidated Rentenmark notes.
supported · S437
Allied military marks also ceased validity in the western currency reform.
supported · S437
The Soviet occupation zone began issuing its separate mark currency. Reichsmark-system territorial successor; individual occupation-note conversions are not fully catalogued.
supported_inference · S437
The eastern currency became Mark der Deutschen Notenbank.
supported · S437
The eastern currency became Mark der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik.
supported · S437
East Germany adopted Deutsche Mark; wages and savings followed different conversion rules. No blanket 1:1 or 2:1 valuation.
supported · S438
A chronicle attests the ruble name in 1316; birch-bark evidence is earlier. Attestation, not an exact origin date.
supported · S440
Glinskaya’s kopek reform standardised previously differing regional silver coinages.
supported · S442
Peter’s reform replaced the old small-coin system with a broader decimal coinage. Staged reform; old wire kopeks did not disappear immediately.
Regular ruble coins began in 1704, using thaler-weight models and sometimes thaler metal. Metal supply and weight influence do not prove a thaler currency parent.
supported · S440
The later imperial silver ruble belongs to the ruble coinage tradition. Intermediate weight and tariff reforms remain untraced; no direct conversion factor asserted.
qualified · S440
Assignation banks issued paper rubles initially redeemable in copper coin in practice.
supported · S441
Credit notes displaced assignations at 3.5 assignation rubles per credit ruble. Reform-period scope; not a claim that all silver coins were replaced.
supported · S441
State credit notes used the silver-ruble unit and exchanged at face value.
supported · S441
Witte’s reform made imperial credit notes exchangeable for gold.
supported · S440
The State Bank stopped gold redemption after the war began.
supported · S439
One 1922 ruble replaced 10,000 earlier paper rubles.
supported · S439
The 1922 conversion also accepted earlier tsar-era paper money. Conversion in the reform’s jurisdiction; not uniform acceptance across every civil-war territory.
supported · S439
One 1923 ruble replaced 100 rubles of 1922.
supported · S439
One treasury gold ruble replaced 50,000 rubles of the 1923 sovznak scale.
supported · S439
The State Bank gained authority to issue partially gold-backed chervonets banknotes.
supported · S439
The 1947 reform ended the separate chervonets banknote unit. No universal cash-and-deposit conversion rate inferred.
supported · S439
Russian national issues emerged from the inherited Soviet ruble system. Issuer history dates first Russian circulating issues to 1992. The exact legal separation and July 1993 exchange need a dedicated record.
qualified · S439
The Russian ruble scale changed at 1,000 old rubles per new ruble.
supported · S439
Specified old-scale Russian cash ceased payment use after the transition year. Withdrawal does not create another currency; historical exchange rights are not current advice.
supported · S224
King Radoslav is credited with the first Serbian ruler’s coin issues. Earlier 1214 dinar wording is not treated as proof of these particular coin issues.
supported · S447
Medieval Serbian dinar coinage disappeared following Ottoman conquest.
supported · S447
Serbia’s silver-currency law established the modern dinar. Gregorian date; 30 November in the Julian calendar.
supported · S446
Modern Serbia revived the medieval dinar name.
supported · S446
Modern Serbian silver dinar coins followed the earlier copper issues.
supported · S447
The new South Slav kingdom retained the Serbian dinar as its monetary unit. Territorial extension and unification occurred over a transition period.
Imperial crown notes continued in the kingdom’s former Habsburg territories. Local successor circulation; administrative stamping details remain to be expanded.
supported_inference · S445
Crown exchange into dinars began at four crowns per dinar.
supported · S445
Occupied Serbia acquired a separate Serbian dinar after Yugoslavia’s partition. This was one of several occupation monetary areas.
Postwar Yugoslav dinars replaced occupation money, including Serbian occupation dinars. Non-exclusive incoming branch; exact conversion and other occupation currencies remain open.
The Yugoslav dinar was rescaled by 100 during the 1965–1966 reform. Slovenian statistical effective date: 1 January 1966. Serbian compilation: 1 August 1965. The event boundary remains qualified.
One new Yugoslav dinar replaced 10,000 previous dinars.
supported · S443
Federal Yugoslavia introduced a dinar scale worth ten preceding dinars. Successor territorial branch after other republics separated.
supported · S443
One October dinar replaced one million July-1992-scale dinars.
supported · S443
One January dinar replaced one billion October-scale dinars.
supported · S444
The stabilised new dinar entered at thirteen million January dinars per new dinar. Dated rate only; the table gives twelve million from 26 January through 30 June.
supported · S444
The new Yugoslav dinar was initially equal in value to Deutsche Mark. A value anchor, not a Deutsche Mark conversion ancestry.
supported · S444
The Yugoslav new dinar became the Serbian dinar without another rescaling. Later ISO-code change in 2006 is not a new monetary unit.
supported · S98
The Serbian dinar’s ISO code changed from CSD to RSD.
supported · S98
Macedonia replaced the Yugoslav dinar with its denar at par.
One new denar replaced 100 temporary denars. Issuer-derived statistical sources disagree on May 7 versus May 10; month precision avoids false exactness.
Macedonia adopted a stable exchange-rate strategy against Deutsche Mark. Policy anchor; the immediate parent remains the Yugoslav dinar.
supported · S448
Australian national pounds developed from the sterling currency adopted in the colonies. 1825 is the colonial framework; 1910 national legislation does not erase earlier local money.
supported · S93
New Zealand local pound coinage and national notes succeeded the British-coin and trading-bank system. Staged monetary separation; no blanket 1:1 sterling conversion asserted.
supported · S449
Fiji’s local pound issues developed from an English-coin currency system. The board began in 1914 and local coins followed in 1934; this is unit descent, not a fixed exchange-rate claim.
supported · S450
Tongan government pound notes supplemented the British currency already in use.
supported · S240
One Tongan pound converted to two paʻanga.
supported · S240
The Tongan pound moved to 1.25 per sterling pound, matching the Australian pound. A parity change, not Australian-pound ancestry.
supported · S240
Post-independence Samoa’s local bank issue succeeded the Bank of New Zealand pound-note system. Transition bounded by independence and decimalisation; issuer terminology is imprecise about British versus New Zealand pounds.
Samoa converted its existing pound unit to two tala per pound.
supported · S98
Jamaica adopted British currency as the basis of its pound system. Spanish doubloons remained a legal-tender exception until 1901.
supported · S99
Cayman currency replaced Jamaican dollars at equal unit value during the 1972 changeover. Jamaican cash retained legal tender through 31 August.
supported · S265
The kina succeeded Australian dollars in Papua New Guinea. Both circulated through 1975; Australian-dollar legal tender ended on 1 January 1976. Traditional shell names are a separate naming history.
supported · S239
The South African pound retained the British pound coin system while national notes succeeded commercial-bank issues. 1922 anchors a documented national stage, not a claimed first origin date; derivation rests on the inherited unit, not parity alone.
South Africa replaced its pound with two rand per pound.
supported · S244
Botswana introduced the pula in exchange for the rand at par. The initial guaranteed exchange window lasted 100 days.
supported · S233
The lilangeni became local money alongside the rand, with equal value and a programme to return rand cash. This was a local-currency succession with continuing co-circulation, not immediate extinction of rand use.
supported · S243
Lesotho introduced the loti at par with the previously circulating rand. Rand legal tender continued; month precision retained alongside the earlier IMF dossier.
supported · S98
Namibia introduced its dollar at par with the previously circulating rand. Rand remained legal tender alongside the new local currency.
supported · S98
The Spanish dollar or piece of eight represented eight reales. A denomination relationship within the real system; date bounds the source’s seventeenth/eighteenth-century account, not first minting.
supported · S99
Hong Kong’s local silver-dollar issue developed from circulating Spanish and Mexican silver dollars. One traced standard input; the 1935 sterling link is not its origin.
supported · S453
Mexican dollars were another input to Hong Kong’s local silver-dollar standard.
supported · S453
The Straits dollar displaced Mexican dollars among several circulating silver-dollar currencies. Other trade-dollar inputs remain to be individually traced; 1899 note issue predates the new coin.
supported · S82
A Fitzwilliam specimen establishes Lodi billon tanka coinage before 1500. Dated object, not a birth date or complete metrological series.
supported · S455
Sher Shah’s silver rupee replaced the late billon-tanka system. Scoped family-level predecessor; individual Lodi-to-Suri tariffs are unresolved and no metal-weight ratio is used as a conversion.
supported_inference · S454
Humayun’s restored coinage adopted Suri silver standards, continued in the Mughal rupee. Succession period, not one exact reform date; mint-specific intermediate standards remain expandable.
supported · S456
The Mughal grant allowed the East India Company to mint Mughal-style rupees at Bombay. This records monetary continuation in one presidency, not the ancestry of every Company coin.
supported · S457
Bombay Mughal-style rupees were one input to the uniform British Indian rupee coinage. Madras and Bengal presidency branches remain additional inputs to research; no blanket old-rupee conversion ratio.
supported · S457
Crown coinage followed Company coinage in the rupee system. Change of sovereign and coin design, not a new unit of account.
supported · S457
Independent India retained the inherited rupee and then introduced Republic designs. Independence and the 1950 coin issue did not rescale the rupee.
supported · S458
India decimalised the rupee without changing its value or name. Subdivision reform stays on the rupee line.
supported · S458
Pakistan initially used Indian notes and then modified and national rupee issues. A phased territorial separation; no change in rupee face-unit inferred from the redesign.
supported · S459
Bangladesh’s taka succeeded the Pakistani rupee at equal unit value. Year precision distinguishes the accounting transition from first national banknote issue.
supported · S98
India introduced a separate rupee-note currency for Gulf circulation. The original domestic notes were displaced through a regional changeover; no modern peg is being promoted into ancestry.
Kuwait’s dinar replaced the circulating Gulf rupee. CBK calls the predecessor Indian rupee; Bundesbank identifies the external Gulf issue. One rupee converted to 0.075 dinar; inverse is not rounded.
Ten Gulf rupees converted to one Bahraini dinar.
supported · S98
Qatar temporarily substituted borrowed Saudi-riyal notes for Gulf rupees. This concerns Qatar’s circulation only, not the Saudi currency’s origin.
supported · S98
Qatar–Dubai riyals replaced the interim Saudi notes. 100 Saudi riyals converted to 106.5 Qatar–Dubai riyals; inverse is not rounded.
supported · S98
Qatar continued with a separate riyal at par after the joint issue ended.
supported · S98
Qatar–Dubai riyals converted into UAE dirhams at par. The non-Abu Dhabi branch; day precision remains unresolved.
Abu Dhabi converted Bahraini dinars into ten UAE dirhams each. Territorial adoption, not replacement of Bahrain’s currency in Bahrain.
Oman replaced Gulf rupees with the rial Saidi. 100 Gulf rupees converted to 7.5 rials; other circulating coin inputs remain open.
supported · S98
The Omani rial continued the rial Saidi at equal value. A naming/issue stage on one currency line.
supported · S98
The CFA unit separates from the metropolitan-franc monetary system in the 1945 reform. Earlier territorial issues remain expandable; this records shared unit descent, not a 1.70-to-one exchange of old local notes.
supported · S463
The Pacific franc separates from the metropolitan-franc monetary system in the same reform.
supported · S463
New Hebrides franc issues continue the Pacific-franc system established in 1945, with IEOM issuance from 1967. This is a regional issue lineage; the date of separate exchange arrangements is not claimed.
supported · S463
Distinct Malagasy franc issues followed the French currency introduced after annexation in 1896.
supported · S464
Tunisia replaced its piastre system with the French franc unit in 1891. The Tunisian piastre is a separate local predecessor still to trace.
supported · S465
The 1865 convention codifies a common franc coinage standard with France as one participating monetary system. A shared standard, not a new circulating currency replacing member francs.
supported · S466
Barbados’s colonial currency combined sterling coinage with local dollar-denominated bank notes by 1850. The issuer history supports mixed-system descent; intermediate local dollar ratings remain to be expanded.
supported_inference · S467
BCCB notes took over the note circulation of Barbados, British Guiana and Trinidad in 1951. The Barbados system is one documented input, not the only one.
supported · S467
The Bahamas Currency Board issued local pounds against sterling at par. An issue-system derivation; the later dollar peg is a different relationship.
supported · S468
British Honduras reorganised a sterling-based mixed circulation into a gold-basis system with local dollar notes in 1894. Sterling is one documented monetary input; Spanish-American coins and US dollars require separate branches. No exchange ratio inferred.
supported_inference · S104
The Bermuda pound replaced in 1970 was the locally issued sterling-denominated predecessor of the Bermuda dollar. The transition attests the inherited pound system; 1970 is not its origin date.
supported_inference · S202
Gibraltar began local emergency sterling-note issues in 1914. The issuer explicitly describes sterling as the unit; this is a local issue branch, not proof of a separate monetary unit.
supported · S290
Local Falkland pound notes supplemented British sterling under the 1899 order, as reported in 1923.
supported · S469
Mauritius combined local currency-board notes with the Indian rupee as its prescribed monetary unit. The history supports unit descent; precise changeover terms and early local-note denominations remain expandable.
supported_inference · S470
Ugandan shilling issues succeeded the East African Currency Board currency. The national-note history and separate coin timeline differ in milestone dates; retain the 1966–1967 interval. The 1987 confiscatory reform remains a continuity event requiring fuller scope.
supported · S215
The quetzal replaced the Guatemalan peso at sixty pesos per quetzal.
supported · S471
The new quetzal was defined as equal to one US dollar at its creation. Founding unit definition, not inference from a later exchange-rate peg.
supported · S471
National Dominican peso notes replaced circulating US dollars in the 1947 monetary reform. Earlier Dominican and foreign-currency inputs remain additional historical branches.
supported · S472
The new Panamanian gold peso, named balboa, used the contemporary US dollar weight and fineness at parity. A founding unit-standard relationship. The Colombian circulation it displaced remains a separate input.
supported · S473
The 1903 Philippine reform defined a gold peso and made US gold dollars tender at two pesos per dollar. The date is enactment; commencement depended on the stipulated coin supply. Spanish and Mexican predecessors are additional inputs, not erased by the new standard.
supported · S474
The córdoba succeeded Nicaragua’s peso-denominated treasury currency under the 1912 law, circulating in 1913.
supported · S476
The first córdoba was established at the value of one US dollar.
supported · S475
The new córdoba replaced the old córdoba at one to one thousand. Sources differ between 14 and 15 February; month precision avoids conflating reform announcement and implementation.
The córdoba oro supplemented and then replaced the 1988 córdoba. Introduced as an account unit and later cash in 1990; floated against the prior córdoba until March 1991. No constant transition ratio asserted.
Brazilian réis developed from Portuguese money, with imported coin circulation followed by provincial recoinage. A documented unit-family branch; intervening coin ratings and Spanish-coin inputs remain to be expanded.
Brazilian real (réis) converted into Cruzeiro at 1000 old units per new unit.
supported · S478
Cruzeiro converted into Cruzeiro novo / cruzeiro at 1000 old units per new unit.
supported · S478
Cruzeiro novo / cruzeiro converted into Cruzado at 1000 old units per new unit.
supported · S478
Cruzado converted into Cruzado novo / cruzeiro at 1000 old units per new unit.
supported · S478
Cruzado novo / cruzeiro converted into Cruzeiro real at 1000 old units per new unit.
supported · S478
Cruzeiro real converted into Brazilian real at 2750 old units per new unit.
supported · S478
Cruzeiro novo was renamed cruzeiro without rescaling.
supported · S478
Cruzado novo was renamed cruzeiro at par. This face-unit statement does not describe the separate restrictions on financial balances.
supported · S478
Banco de Portugal traces the real replaced in 1911 to the reign of Duarte, by 1435. An institutional history of the unit, not an exact first-coin date.
supported · S480
Portugal established the escudo at one thousand réis per escudo.
supported · S480
Argentina’s national monetary line dates to the 1881 peso moneda nacional reform.
supported · S481
Peso moneda nacional converted into Peso ley at 100 old units per new unit.
Peso ley converted into Peso argentino at 10000 old units per new unit.
Peso argentino converted into Austral at 1000 old units per new unit.
Austral converted into Argentine peso at 10000 old units per new unit.
Chilean peso converted into Chilean escudo at 1000 old units per new unit. Country-specific currency-history entry. Cash introduction and accounting implementation can differ; earlier unit inputs remain open.
supported · S98
Chilean escudo converted into Chilean peso at 1000 old units per new unit. Country-specific currency-history entry. Cash introduction and accounting implementation can differ; earlier unit inputs remain open.
supported · S98
Boliviano converted into Peso boliviano at 1000 old units per new unit. Country-specific currency-history entry. Cash introduction and accounting implementation can differ; earlier unit inputs remain open.
supported · S98
Peso boliviano converted into Boliviano at 1000000 old units per new unit. Country-specific currency-history entry. Cash introduction and accounting implementation can differ; earlier unit inputs remain open.
supported · S98
Sol de oro converted into Inti at 1000 old units per new unit. Country-specific currency-history entry. Cash introduction and accounting implementation can differ; earlier unit inputs remain open.
supported · S98
Inti converted into Peruvian sol at 1000000 old units per new unit. Country-specific currency-history entry. Cash introduction and accounting implementation can differ; earlier unit inputs remain open.
supported · S98
Bolivia’s 1863 law established its decimal boliviano or peso fuerte.
supported · S482